MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia

By Dr. Azamat Mukhtarov (Kurultai Research and Consulting)

A Journey Between Continents — and Concepts

When I first arrived in Istanbul in February 2024, the city greeted me with a mosaic of sounds, sights, and histories. The call to prayer mingled with the hum of ferries crossing the Bosphorus, symbolically linking Asia and Europe — and, in a way, mirroring my own academic journey between different worlds of thought.

I was in Istanbul for my research secondment at Marmara University, undertaken as part of the MOCCA Project (Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia), funded by the European Commission under Horizon Europe’s Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (101085855).

My secondment was divided into two phases — 1 February to 29 February 2024 and 4 May 2024 to 13 May 2025 — allowing me to weave sustained engagement with the city’s intellectual life into the broader research agenda of the MOCCA network.

These periods were not merely about academic exchange; they became a space for personal reflection on how anti-corruption policy, social norms, and morality intersect in contemporary Uzbekistan — the core focus of my ongoing research project.

Istanbul: A Laboratory of Cultural Encounters

Few cities in the world embody hybridity as vividly as Istanbul. Every street, mosque, and café seems to contain overlapping histories — Byzantine and Ottoman, Islamic and secular, traditional and modern.

In that sense, Istanbul felt like a natural setting to explore questions of moral pluralism and legal hybridity — issues central to understanding corruption and anti-corruption in Central Asia.

At Marmara University’s Department of Political Science, I found a welcoming and stimulating academic home. My host colleagues were incredibly generous with their time and insights. The seminars I delivered there — particularly on the “Nexus Between Anti-Corruption Measures, Social Norms, and Morality in Uzbekistan” — attracted both graduate students and faculty members.

Our discussions often revolved around how anti-corruption strategies imported from global frameworks, though well-intentioned, sometimes fail to resonate with local moral universes. For instance, a “bribe” from a Western legal perspective may, in a Central Asian context, overlap with deeply rooted social obligations of gift-giving, reciprocity, and solidarity. These distinctions, while subtle, are essential to understanding why corruption persists — and why simplistic legalistic solutions often falter.

The MOCCA Framework: Studying Corruption Beyond the Law

The MOCCA Project, under the leadership of Prof. Rustamjon Urinboyev (Lund University) has provided an interdisciplinary platform for scholars to study corruption not as a pathology of governance but as a social phenomenon intertwined with norms, values, and moral reasoning.

In February 2024, I took part in the MOCCA Methods Workshop held in Istanbul. This event brought together an inspiring range of scholars from across Europe and Central Asia. Sessions by MOCCA researchers encouraged us to rethink the very foundations of social research — from methodological decolonization to ethnographic engagement with “difficult-to-access” social groups. For me, these discussions were transformative. They underscored the importance of listening carefully to everyday moral logics — those unwritten rules that guide people’s behavior long before any formal law enters the picture.

Research Focus: Anti-Corruption, Social Norms, and Morality in Uzbekistan

My research project, provisionally titled “Anti-Corruption, Social Norms and Morality in Uzbekistan”, examines how anti-corruption efforts intersect with the moral economies and everyday ethics of Uzbek society.

Drawing on field insights and theoretical work developed within MOCCA — especially the ethnographic studies by Rustamjon Urinboyev and Måns Svensson on corruption and everyday life— I explore how people in Uzbekistan navigate a field of overlapping normative orders: the formal law of the state, the moral codes of Islam, and the expectations of kinship, family, and community (mahalla).

While international organizations define corruption as the “abuse of public office for private gain,” this definition often clashes with local understandings of morality and obligation. In many contexts, social survival depends not on rejecting informal exchanges but on participating in them — as acts of generosity, reciprocity, or moral duty.

This reality poses a profound challenge to anti-corruption reforms: how can legal systems combat corruption without undermining the moral and social bonds that hold communities together?

My ongoing work argues that genuine reform must integrate the moral grammar of society — rather than impose external models that ignore lived experience. Understanding corruption in Uzbekistan, therefore, means understanding the moral life of informality.

The Broader Intellectual Context

My participation in the MOCCA Mid-Term Conference (Lund, 6–8 May 2025) reinforced this interdisciplinary dialogue. The conference gathered leading researchers from across Central Asia, offering comparative insights into the cultural dimensions of corruption — from gift-giving practices in Uzbekistan to informal governance structures in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Hearing these diverse perspectives deepened my conviction that social norms and morality are not peripheral but central to understanding governance in post-Soviet societies.

This intellectual environment has also shaped my forthcoming book chapter, to appear in an edited volume within the Palgrave IPE Series, co-edited by Prof. Ruziev and Prof. Urinboyev. The chapter builds on MOCCA’s commitment to exploring corruption as a multilevel order — one that spans the law, the state, and the moral lives of ordinary people.

Life in Istanbul: Between the Academic and the Everyday

Beyond conferences and research meetings, daily life in Istanbul offered an education of its own.

Walking through the narrow streets of Kadıköy or crossing the Galata Bridge at sunset, I often thought about how cities, like societies, are built on invisible moral compacts — shared understandings of trust, respect, and reciprocity.

Istanbul reminded me that anti-corruption research is not only about analyzing systems but also about recognizing the humanity that underlies those systems. Whether in a café conversation, a public lecture, or a casual discussion with colleagues, I found that ideas about morality and integrity are living, evolving concepts — constantly negotiated between tradition and modernity.

The hospitality and collegiality of Turkish scholars, especially Professor Erhan Dogan created an atmosphere of intellectual openness that made my research both productive and personally enriching.

Knowledge Transfer and Future Collaboration

As part of my secondment’s dissemination activities, I shared the methodological insights I gained in Istanbul with my colleagues at Kurultai Research and Consulting, contributing to a practical workshop on integrating ethnographic methods into policy-oriented anti-corruption research.

These exchanges have already inspired new collaborations — including plans for joint seminars with Marmara University and the wider MOCCA network on the moral foundations of governance reform in Central Asia.

I am also exploring ways to engage with policy communities in Uzbekistan, helping bridge the gap between academic research and public discourse on anti-corruption.

Reflections and Gratitude

Looking back, my Istanbul secondment was more than an academic assignment — it was a journey of intellectual transformation.

The city’s layered history, the generosity of my hosts, and the MOCCA project’s interdisciplinary spirit together offered a unique vantage point from which to reconsider the relationship between law, morality, and social order.

I return from Istanbul with a renewed sense of purpose: to contribute to a more nuanced, culturally grounded understanding of corruption in Uzbekistan — one that acknowledges not only the legal frameworks but also the moral worlds in which people live.

Concluding Thought

Corruption, when viewed only through the prism of law, appears as a deviation to be eradicated. But when seen through the eyes of anthropology, sociology, and moral philosophy, it reveals a more complex truth: it is also a reflection of how communities organize trust, obligation, and survival.

In Istanbul, standing on the bridge between continents, I was reminded that research, too, must learn to bridge worlds — between law and morality, formality and informality, and the local and the global.

Only by doing so can we move closer to understanding, and ultimately transforming, the moral landscapes that sustain corruption — and the possibilities for integrity — in societies like Uzbekistan.

By Dr. Shukhrat Rakhmanov

Researcher and Lecturer, Tashkent State University of Economics (TSUE)
Participant in the Horizon Europe MSCA Staff Exchanges Project “MOCCA – Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia”

Introduction: Researching Migration in a Digital Age

In today’s interconnected world, migration is no longer just a question of borders, visas, or economic opportunity — it has become a complex global process influenced by technology, governance, and informal networks of power. When I joined the MOCCA Project (Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia), my goal was to examine the intersection between migration, digital transformation, and informality — specifically, how corruption and informal practices shape migration governance in Central Asia and beyond.

Between June 2024 and April 2025, I had the privilege of conducting two secondments that profoundly shaped this research and my academic perspective:

• Lund University, Sweden (02.06.2024 – 31.10.2024)
• Marmara University, Istanbul, Türkiye (01.12.2024 – 30.04.2025)

Each university offered unique intellectual and cultural environments that expanded my understanding of migration governance in the digital era. My time abroad also resulted in a peer-reviewed publication titled “The Role of Modern Technologies in Migration Processes” in the Journal of Intellectual Property and Human Rights (Vol. 4, Issue 4, 2025) — an article that brings together the insights and findings developed during these secondments.

Lund University: A Space for Intellectual Deepening and Reflection

Arriving in Lund in early June 2024, I was immediately struck by the city’s atmosphere — calm, green, and intellectually vibrant. As a visiting researcher at Lund University’s Department of Sociology of Law, I found myself immersed in a culture that values open dialogue, critical inquiry, and interdisciplinary collaboration.

Lund provided the ideal setting for theoretical exploration. My work there focused on examining how modern technologies — from biometric systems and digital identities to artificial intelligence and blockchain — are reshaping migration management. I was particularly interested in how these technologies, while promoting efficiency and transparency, might also reproduce inequality or create new forms of exclusion.

During my stay, I engaged with legal scholars, sociologists, and migration policy experts who challenged me to think beyond traditional legal frameworks. Discussions about the ethical limits of data-driven governance and the role of human rights in algorithmic decision-making became central to my research direction.

I presented parts of my work at the Department of Sociology of Law, where students and faculty offered stimulating feedback on the concept of “digital borders” — the ways in which data and technology now define the limits of human mobility as much as physical barriers do. These conversations helped refine my research questions and strengthen the analytical foundation of my paper.

Lund’s interdisciplinary and reflective environment allowed me to approach migration not only as a legal or administrative process but as a technological and ethical transformation of human mobility. The quiet productivity of Swedish academic life provided the ideal space to write, revise, and ultimately complete much of the article that would later be published.

Marmara University: Dialogue, Diversity, and the Realities of Migration

My second five-month stay took me to Marmara University in Istanbul — a city of immense cultural and historical depth, where migration is not an abstract concept but a visible, lived reality. Everywhere I went — from the bustling streets of Kadıköy to the old quarters of Fatih — I encountered stories of movement, belonging, and adaptation. These everyday encounters gave tangible meaning to my academic inquiry.

At Marmara University’s Department of Political Science, I presented my findings and discussed with Turkish colleagues and students the implications of technology on migration governance in contexts marked by rapid urbanization and high mobility. The discussions often centered on the tension between formal digital systems and informal governance practices — a subject directly tied to MOCCA’s focus on corruption and informality in governance structures.

In Türkiye, where migration policy intersects with regional geopolitics, humanitarian crises, and digital transformation, I observed that new technologies are increasingly being integrated into migration management systems. However, I also found that informal practices, personal networks, and bureaucratic discretion often mediate how these technologies are used in practice. This interplay — between digital innovation and informal governance — became one of the most intriguing aspects of my comparative analysis.

Through seminars and workshops at Marmara, I also had the opportunity to engage with students and researchers from diverse backgrounds — some with first-hand experience of migration themselves. Their perspectives reinforced my conviction that migration studies must be human-centered, grounded in empathy as much as in empirical data.

Research Focus: Technology, Law, and Human Rights

The research I conducted during my secondments culminated in my article “The Role of Modern Technologies in Migration Processes,” which explores how digital tools are transforming global migration governance.

The paper examines technologies such as:

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) for risk assessment and visa processing;
• Biometric identification systems used in border control and refugee registration;
• Blockchain technology for decentralized digital identities and fair recruitment practices; and
• Predictive analytics for anticipating migration flows and humanitarian needs.

The study also highlights the legal and ethical dilemmas that arise when technology intersects with migration management. For instance:

• How can states ensure that biometric data is collected and stored responsibly?
• What safeguards exist against algorithmic bias or racial profiling in AI-driven systems?
• Can blockchain offer migrants more control over their identities — or does it create new vulnerabilities?

Drawing on examples from the European Union, the United States, Central Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, I argue that technology’s role in migration is both transformative and contested. It has the power to improve transparency, reduce corruption, and enhance service delivery — but it also risks turning migration governance into a system of surveillance and exclusion if left unchecked.

In the article’s conclusion, I call for a rights-based and inclusive approach to migration technologies, one that ensures transparency, accountability, and equitable access. As I wrote in the paper:

“The governance of migration in the digital age must strike a careful balance: embracing innovation while upholding the core values of justice, human rights, and equity.”

Personal and Professional Growth

Beyond research outputs, these secondments were transformative on a personal level. Working in two very different academic and cultural contexts — Sweden and Türkiye — deepened my understanding of how migration, governance, and digitalization are perceived across regions.

In Lund, I learned the value of structured, evidence-based policy research and the Nordic model of academic collaboration.
In Istanbul, I experienced the vibrancy of an academic environment deeply connected to real-world policy challenges and social diversity.

Both experiences enhanced my ability to teach, publish, and engage with international colleagues. Thanks to the support of my hosts, I was able to dedicate full time to my research, refine my methodological approach, and establish new academic connections that will inform future collaborations between Tashkent State University of Economics, Lund University, and Marmara University.

Returning Home: Sharing Knowledge and Building Capacity

Upon returning to Uzbekistan, I have been committed to sharing the insights gained from my secondments with colleagues and students at TSEU. I have incorporated new case studies and comparative perspectives into my courses on International Law, emphasizing the role of technology and informality in contemporary governance.

The MOCCA project has not only enhanced my professional competencies but also strengthened institutional ties between TSUE and European universities — helping to build a sustainable network for joint research and policy dialogue on migration governance, corruption, and digital transformation.

Conclusion: Towards a More Human-Centered Digital Future

Migration governance in the 21st century stands at a crossroads. The integration of modern technologies promises greater efficiency and transparency, but it also requires a careful reevaluation of ethical and legal principles. My time at Lund and Marmara reaffirmed that technology must be guided by values — justice, accountability, and respect for human dignity.

As scholars, policymakers, and practitioners, our task is to ensure that innovation serves humanity, not the other way around. The MOCCA project, through its cross-border collaborations and interdisciplinary focus, plays a vital role in advancing this goal.

By Dr. Daniyar Kaldiyarov
Eurasian Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Secondment at Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey (01 February 2024 – 14 January 2025)

When I first arrived in Istanbul in February 2024, I was greeted not only by the sound of ferries crossing the Bosporus and the echo of street vendors calling in Turkish and Arabic, but also by a deep sense of curiosity. I had come to Turkey for a 12-month secondment at Marmara University as part of the MOCCA Project — Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia, a research initiative funded by the European Commission (Horizon Europe MSCA-SE).

As a researcher from the Eurasian Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies in Almaty, Kazakhstan, my aim was clear: to explore the connections between corruption, institutions, and access to infrastructure in Kazakhstan. Yet, the experience that unfolded in Istanbul became far more than a research project — it was an immersion into comparative governance, academic collaboration, and cultural dialogue that reshaped my understanding of both corruption and reform.

Setting the Scene: Research Aims and Questions

My research project, “Corruption in Context: Institutions, Infrastructure and Economic Development,” sought to uncover how institutional quality and infrastructure distribution affect corruption patterns in Kazakhstan.

The central question driving my study was:

How do institutional imperfections and unequal access to infrastructure sustain corruption as a social norm rather than an exception?

To answer this, I combined methods from institutional economics, political-legal analysis, and empirical sociology. The project relied on survey and interview data from multiple regions of Kazakhstan, focusing on how citizens perceive corruption in everyday interactions with public infrastructure — from water supply and roads to education and digital services.

This research formed part of the broader MOCCA project’s ambition to develop comparative, context-sensitive understandings of corruption in Central Asia — a region where historical legacies, informal practices, and modernization processes often intersect in complex ways.

Academic Life at Marmara University

Marmara University, with its strong tradition in political science, law, and economics, provided an ideal environment to advance this research. The Department of Political Science — where I was hosted — offered access to seminars, interdisciplinary working groups, and mentorship that strengthened both the conceptual and methodological foundations of my study.

Thanks to the generous support of my host Prof. Erhan Dogan, I was able to dedicate a full year of uninterrupted research time — something few researchers in active institutions can afford. This period allowed me to revise theoretical frameworks, refine the empirical design, and finalize the manuscript that eventually became a book.

During my stay, I presented my work in departmental seminars attended by graduate students and faculty. Discussions were vibrant and comparative: colleagues often related the Kazakhstani experience to Turkish debates on transparency, governance, and the role of informal networks in public life. These exchanges illuminated the universality of corruption as a challenge — transcending national boundaries but shaped by local institutions and culture.

I also participated in MOCCA’s methods workshop, “Fieldwork and Data Collection Strategies in (Anti-)Corruption Research” (February 2024), where researchers from across Europe and Central Asia discussed best practices for data gathering in politically sensitive contexts. This dialogue helped refine the methodological rigor of my fieldwork in Kazakhstan.

Living and Learning in Istanbul

Beyond academia, living in Istanbul was itself an education in complexity and continuity. Few cities illustrate the interplay between tradition and modernization as vividly as this one. Every walk from Kadıköy’s university quarter to the old Ottoman streets of Üsküdar offered a tangible metaphor for my research: how societies manage continuity in the face of transformation.

The experience of navigating Istanbul’s diverse social and administrative systems gave me practical insights into comparative institutional dynamics. I observed how Turkey’s reforms in digital governance — including e-government services and smart infrastructure systems — have reduced bureaucratic opacity. These reforms offered valuable parallels and policy lessons for Kazakhstan, where similar digital transitions are underway but remain uneven across regions.

Life in Istanbul also nurtured personal growth. The city’s cosmopolitan atmosphere, multiculturalism, and vibrant intellectual life encouraged constant reflection. Conversations with Turkish colleagues, local civil servants, and international researchers broadened my perspective on corruption not just as an economic or legal issue, but as a cultural and institutional phenomenon intertwined with daily life.

From Research to Publication: Corruption in Context

The most tangible academic outcome of my secondment is the publication of the book Corruption in Context: Institutions, Infrastructure and Economic Development, co-authored with Dr. Dinara Rakhmatullayeva and published by Media-Tryck, Lund University (2025).

The book represents a culmination of years of research and the intellectual environment fostered during my stay in Istanbul. It examines corruption as a systemic, institutionalized phenomenon rather than isolated acts of misconduct.

Key Insights from the Study

1. Institutional Traps and Corruption Persistence
   In Kazakhstan and other post-Soviet contexts, weak enforcement mechanisms and social norms sustain “institutional traps” — situations where corrupt practices become rational strategies for survival.
2. Infrastructure Inequality as a Catalyst for Corruption
   Disparities in access to infrastructure — whether roads, energy, digital networks, or healthcare — create conditions where officials can exploit scarcity for personal gain. The study demonstrates how infrastructure bottlenecks often turn into arenas for informal exchanges.
3. Societal Attitudes and Tolerance
   Survey data revealed that while citizens condemn corruption in principle, they often perceive it as unavoidable in practice. This duality reflects low institutional trust and a culture of pragmatic adaptation.
4. Digitalization and Reform
   Digital governance tools, when properly implemented, have the potential to disrupt informal rent-seeking patterns. However, technological reform must be accompanied by civic participation and accountability mechanisms to ensure long-term impact.

The interdisciplinary approach — combining economic modelling, institutional theory, and sociological fieldwork — distinguishes the book from conventional corruption studies. It is both a diagnostic tool for understanding corruption’s roots and a policy blueprint for designing context-sensitive reforms.

Presenting Findings on an International Stage: MOCCA Mid-Term Conference

In May 2025, a few months after completing my secondment, I had the honor of presenting our joint paper “Corruption and Access to Infrastructure: A Sociological Study in Kazakhstan” at the MOCCA Mid-Term Conference hosted by Lund University, Sweden.

Our presentation formed part of Panel 1: Corruption, Informality and Social Norms, alongside contributions from colleagues in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkey. We examined the relationship between infrastructural scarcity and everyday corruption, demonstrating that sectors such as land allocation, utilities, and digital access are among the most vulnerable to informal payments and favoritism.

Engagement with fellow MOCCA researchers provided valuable comparative perspectives. For instance, participants from Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan highlighted similar patterns in their own countries — where rapid modernization has outpaced institutional reform, creating new “grey zones” of informal governance.

The conference reinforced the MOCCA project’s core vision: that combating corruption in Central Asia requires an understanding of local norms, informal institutions, and cross-regional dynamics, rather than the mere transplantation of Western legal models.

Personal and Professional Transformation

Looking back, this secondment transformed not only my research but also my worldview.

Academically, it strengthened my ability to integrate quantitative and qualitative data within a coherent institutional framework. Collaborating with European and Turkish scholars expanded my methodological repertoire and introduced me to new approaches to cross-cultural fieldwork ethics.

Professionally, it deepened institutional ties between the Eurasian Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies and Marmara University, paving the way for future joint workshops and student exchanges.

Personally, it reminded me of why research matters. Understanding corruption is not an abstract exercise; it is about diagnosing real obstacles to human development, equity, and public trust.

Returning to Almaty: Sharing Knowledge and Building Capacity

Upon returning to Kazakhstan in early 2025, I organized a series of seminars and workshops at my home institution to disseminate insights gained during the secondment.

One workshop focused on empirical tools for studying corruption, introducing young researchers to field survey design, data visualization, and ethics in sensitive research. Another event — inspired by Turkey’s digital governance experience — explored how e-government platforms could enhance transparency in Kazakhstan’s public procurement systems.

The goal of these activities was twofold:

1. To translate academic findings into practical discussions relevant to policymakers and civil society; and
2. To empower early-career researchers to adopt interdisciplinary perspectives in studying governance and development.

Through these knowledge-sharing initiatives, the spirit of MOCCA continues to thrive beyond its European network — reinforcing a regional community of inquiry that is both locally grounded and internationally connected.

Reflections on the MOCCA Experience

The MOCCA project stands out not only as a research consortium but also as a collaborative ecosystem. It fosters open dialogue between disciplines — law, economics, sociology, and anthropology — and encourages scholars to engage with both theory and lived realities.

My year at Marmara University confirmed that the study of corruption cannot be reduced to compliance checklists or legislative reforms alone. It requires understanding the cultural logic and institutional incentives that shape human behavior.

Equally important, the project demonstrated that academic mobility is a catalyst for innovation. Being immersed in another academic culture allowed me to question assumptions, test new ideas, and view Kazakhstan’s institutional challenges through a comparative lens.

As I reflect on this journey, I am convinced that the success of projects like MOCCA lies not only in their scientific outputs but in their capacity to build networks of trust and shared learning across borders.

A City that Mirrors the Research

It would be impossible to conclude without mentioning the profound influence of Istanbul itself. The city’s rhythm — between the structured and the spontaneous, the historical and the modern — mirrors the very dualities explored in my research.

Watching the sun set over the Bosporus, where Europe and Asia meet, I often thought about the symbolic relevance of Istanbul to the MOCCA project. It stands at the crossroads of civilizations, just as Central Asia stands at the crossroads of institutional legacies and global transformations.

In many ways, Istanbul taught me that corruption research, too, is about crossings — between disciplines, between cultures, and between the ideals of transparency and the realities of governance.

Acknowledgements

This journey would not have been possible without the support and mentorship of many colleagues. I wish to express my deep gratitude to:

• The faculty and staff of Marmara University’s Department of Political Science, spcifically Prof. Erhan Dogan, for hosting me so warmly and for his invaluable feedback on my research;
• Dr. Dinara Rakhmatullayeva, my co-author and collaborator, for her commitment, insight, and friendship throughout the project; and

Looking Ahead

As I continue my work in Almaty, I see the next phase of my research focusing on digitalization, institutional reform, and civic engagement as interconnected tools for anti-corruption. The empirical findings from our book open new avenues for comparative studies across Central Asia, particularly in understanding how local innovations in governance can complement international frameworks.

In the coming years, I hope to strengthen collaboration between Kazakhstani and Turkish scholars through joint publications, student training, and regional policy dialogues — building on the academic bridges first established during my secondment.

Final Thoughts

The MOCCA secondment at Marmara University was more than a professional assignment; it was an experience that transformed ideas into action, and research into connection.

It reaffirmed my belief that tackling corruption demands more than punishment or compliance — it demands understanding, dialogue, and institutional empathy.

In Istanbul, I found all three.

by Büşra Tosun Durmuş, Marmara University

When I first learned about the MOCCA project through the introduction of Prof. Dr. Erhan Doğan from the Faculty of Political Science at Marmara University, I was immediately excited by its content and the opportunities it offered. Seeing Zurich among the cities that could be visited within the scope of the project, I told myself, “I must join this project.” Having lived in Konstanz, Germany—right on the Swiss border—between 2000 and 2006, I had established more connections with Switzerland than with Germany and had the opportunity to get to know the country closely. Over time, my academic adventure began as an Assistant Professor at the Marmara University Faculty of Communication, and my academic interest shifted specifically towards East-West relations in the context of discourse studies. With the excitement of contributing to the MOCCA project from this perspective, I determined my topic by starting my initial research in the summer of 2025. I submitted my proposal and participation request to Prof. Dr. Peter Finke from the Department of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies at the University of Zurich (UZH), a stakeholder of the project. With his approval and guidance, I initiated the process and made my initial preparations. Through mutual consultation, we decided that November was the most suitable timefor my one-month visit to Zurich.

I arrived in Zurich on November 1, 2025, and once again encountered the city’s transportation system, which I have always admired. For those interested, I would like to share a tip: the GA travelcard, which is valid on all public transport in Switzerland, is also available for a short period of one month. With my SwissPass card, which I created by choosing this option, my commute between the city center where I stayed and Oerlikon, where the Anthropology Department is located, was very comfortable for a month. Additionally, it provided me with unlimited travel opportunities to socialize on weekends and discover Switzerland’s breathtaking nature and culture.

I settled into the apartment I rented for a month in a very central location in Zurich, arriving over the weekend, and made my first visit to the University on Monday, November 3rd. After being welcomed by Prof. Finke, exchanging ideas, and chatting about the project, I settled into the office allocated to me and contacted the relevant people to handle the priority administrative details. Since my study focuses on how a corruption case involving Central Asia and Europe—where the legal process is ongoing—was reported and handled in Switzerland and neighboring countries (analyzing three selected examples from German- language newspapers), I needed to access archives through important databases to which the university subscribes. For this purpose, a “uzh.ch” email and system login were defined for me. I would like to reiterate my thanks here to Manuel Lamora, who was very helpful at this point.

Once the necessary procedures were completed and I accessed the archives, I first created a pilot search group. Before collecting the version of the data I had planned, I completed the codebook for content analysis, which is one of my data processing methods. Since the results of my pilot search turned out to be quite different from what I had predicted, I had to change the range from which I would collect data. During this process, I encountered a serious problem in one of the databases, and the system constantly blocked me from entering these centers. In this period, the help, patience, friendliness, and problem-solving efforts of Jörg Schlatter, with whom I shared the office and who works in the library in the department, made my work much easier. I am grateful to him.

The most productive part of the process in an academic sense was experiencing a different academic environment that I had not experienced before. Although my original field is communication, I had the chance to consult with professors in the department due to the content of the project I am conducting related to Central Asia via the MOCCA connection. Every Wednesday, I had the chance to chat with Prof. Dr. Heinz Käufeler before his class and exchange information about the content of the project. I am also very pleased to have had the opportunity to meet students at events held in the department that fall within my area of interest. I held a small-scale seminar where I exchanged information about the content of the project with doctoral students and post-doctoral researchers from various Central Asian countries in the department. On the other hand, I also visited the Department of Communication located on the same campus, finding the opportunity to establish connections, exchange ideas, and talk about the content and methodology of the project. After a short meeting with Prof. Dr. Frank Esser, the Deputy Head of Department & Study Program Director, I had the opportunity to receive details and evaluations of the project with Assistant Professor of Political Communication, Anne Schulz. Although not directly connected to MOCCA, my visit was quite productive in terms of finding the opportunity to establish a connection with the communication department. I also contacted Hülya Türkmen, the administrative officer of the communication department, and we exchanged contact information for future connections.

During this one-month period in Zurich, I completed an intense research and analysis process by being at the university on all weekdays. I completed the process quite efficiently by exchanging knowledge and experience and creating togetherness for the promotion of the project. In addition to the benefits of this academic experience, I found the opportunity to travel around Switzerland for different cities and experiences whenever I found the opportunity on weekends, in order to take advantage of the services offered by my long-term stay and the GA SwissPass I purchased. I even had the chance to cross into Italy by combining my Lugano trip with Como. On another weekend, using the panoramic GoldenPass Express, I experienced a magnificent train journey lasting about three and a half hours between Interlaken and Montreux on a sunny day after the first snowfall in the Alps. Afterward, I toured the city of Lausanne and explored St. Gallen on another day. Witnessing the change of language, culture, and people in these three different regions of Switzerland was truly an invaluable experience. I also visited Konstanz, where I had lived for 6 years before, and reminisced about the past. During my stay in Zurich, as of November 20, it was also very enjoyable to visit the Christmas markets (Weihnachtsmärkte) set up all over the city every evening and to witness this magical atmosphere so closely.

Thus, after this fruitful and rapidly passing academic experience in Zurich, I returned to Istanbul with the comfort of having moved on to the writing phase of my project. I quickly took action for a comprehensive seminar where I will convey the details of the project and share the project experience I planned in order to share what I have accumulated in my saddlebag with my colleagues and students. I would like to express my gratitude again to everyone who supported me in the process. I am already excited for the next ones.

By Dr. Daniya Nurmukhankyzy, Professor of Law, Zhetysu University (Kazakhstan)

Setting Out on a Journey of Knowledge and Discovery

In August 2023, I embarked on a journey that would deeply shape my academic and personal perspectives. For twelve months, divided between two periods (August–December 2023 and February–September 2024), I conducted a secondment at Marmara University in Istanbul, Turkey, as part of the MOCCA project — Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia (HORIZON MSCA-SE-2021, Project No. 101085855).

As a Professor of Law at Zhetysu University in Kazakhstan, I had long been interested in the legal dimensions of governance and the subtle interplay between law and society in post-Soviet states. The secondment at Marmara University provided a rare opportunity to dedicate myself fully to research while engaging in an international scholarly dialogue about corruption, lawmaking, and institutional reform.

The objective of my stay was to work on a comprehensive comparative study titled “Anti-Corruption Examination of Normative Legal Acts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan: A Comparative Legal Analysis.” This project explores how preventive legal mechanisms—particularly the anti-corruption examination of laws—function in two Central Asian states that share common roots yet have developed distinct legal trajectories since independence.

Istanbul: A City of Contrasts and Inspiration

Arriving in Istanbul felt like entering a living textbook of civilization. Every corner of the city—where the minarets meet the skyline and the call to prayer merges with the hum of daily life—reminded me that law and culture are inseparable.

Marmara University offered an exceptionally supportive environment. The Department of Political Science and Prof. Erhan Dogan provided not only access to excellent resources but also an inspiring academic community. Discussions with Turkish colleagues on topics such as administrative law, ethics, and public accountability helped me place my Central Asian research in a broader comparative framework.

Beyond academia, Istanbul itself taught lessons that no textbook could convey. Observing how a society balances modern governance with centuries-old traditions made me more sensitive to the ways legal norms interact with culture and values. The experience reaffirmed my belief that effective legal reforms are never purely technical—they require cultural resonance and public trust.

Understanding the Project: Anti-Corruption Examination as a Preventive Tool

At the heart of my research lies the concept of anti-corruption examination of normative legal acts—a preventive legal instrument designed to detect corruption risks at the lawmaking stage. The mechanism requires experts to review draft laws and regulations to ensure that their provisions do not unintentionally create opportunities for favoritism, excessive discretion, or abuse of power.

In Kazakhstan, this institution was first introduced in the late 2000s as part of the country’s broader anti-corruption agenda. It aimed to bring transparency to rulemaking by subjecting legal drafts to independent expert review. However, the system went through a turbulent evolution: after being institutionalized in 2009, it was abolished in 2014 and later revived in 2020 following President Tokayev’s call to restore this preventive tool.

Meanwhile, Uzbekistan followed a different trajectory. After decades of limited reforms, the country undertook a comprehensive modernization of its legal framework beginning in 2016. By 2023, Uzbekistan adopted a specialized law on anti-corruption examination—making it one of the few post-Soviet states with a fully codified and mandatory procedure for assessing corruption risks in both draft and existing legislation.

Through this comparative lens, I sought to understand not only how these systems operate on paper but how they function in practice—how laws meant to fight corruption sometimes become, paradoxically, absorbed into the very bureaucratic routines they are meant to reform.

In Kazakhstan, experts often pointed out that while the process is officially transparent—their conclusions are published online through the Saraptama portal—many of their recommendations remain advisory and are not always adopted by state bodies. Some respondents noted that draft laws are submitted for examination more to fulfill a procedural requirement than to genuinely evaluate corruption risks.

In Uzbekistan, by contrast, the procedure is embedded directly within government structures: ministries’ legal departments and the Ministry of Justice conduct mandatory reviews. This ensures coverage but sometimes limits independence. Experts described the system as efficient in form but not always in substance, since the same administrative hierarchies that generate corruption risks can also constrain critical analysis.

Both countries, despite different models, face a similar paradox: the coexistence of formal legal progress with informal political realities. This duality—so characteristic of post-socialist governance—became the conceptual core of my chapter.

Findings and Reflections: Between Formality and Reform

The research demonstrates that anti-corruption examination, in both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, operates as a hybrid institution—combining genuine preventive ambitions with elements of bureaucratic formalism.

In Kazakhstan, the strength of the model lies in its scientific independence and public accessibility, but its weakness lies in the limited power of expert conclusions. In Uzbekistan, the advantage is legal comprehensiveness and institutional coordination, yet transparency and external oversight remain constrained.

For instance, in one Kazakhstani case, experts identified corruption risks in healthcare procurement rules that required ambiguous “written confirmations” from landlords—creating opportunities for arbitrary interpretation. Their recommendations were clear, yet not all were accepted. In another case, concerning refugee status regulations, expert comments pointing to conflicts with international law were formally acknowledged but ultimately disregarded in the final draft.

These examples illustrate that the real effectiveness of anti-corruption examination depends less on methodology and more on political will, accountability, and openness to expert advice.

The broader implication of my findings is that anti-corruption examination reflects the state’s approach to governance itself. When treated seriously, it becomes a meaningful preventive mechanism contributing to good governance. When applied formally, it risks becoming a ritual that legitimizes existing power structures without challenging them.

Participating in the MOCCA Methods Workshop (February 2024)

A highlight of my secondment was participating in the MOCCA Mid-Term Meeting and Methods Workshop, held from February 2–5, 2024, at Marmara University in Istanbul. The event gathered MOCCA researchers from across Europe and Central Asia to exchange experiences, discuss fieldwork challenges, and refine methodological approaches to studying corruption and informality.

On February 5, I had the honor of presenting my paper “Anti-Corruption Assessment and Expert Evaluation of Laws in Kazakhstan”. In this presentation, I discussed the institutional evolution of anti-corruption examination in Kazakhstan, highlighting its scientific basis, methodological challenges, and role in fostering transparency and accountability in lawmaking.

The workshop provided a unique platform for interdisciplinary exchange. Discussions with researchers from different disciplines—sociology, political science, anthropology, and economics—helped me situate my legal analysis within a broader socio-political framework. It was both intellectually stimulating and personally enriching to see how our diverse perspectives converged on a shared goal: understanding and combating corruption in complex, transitional societies.

The Human Dimension of Research

Research is often imagined as an abstract pursuit of knowledge, but my time in Istanbul reminded me that it is also a profoundly human experience. It was in informal discussions with colleagues, over Turkish tea or during university seminars, that some of the most stimulating ideas emerged.

I was fortunate to present parts of my research at Marmara University’s Department of Political Science, where the audience of graduate students and faculty engaged in thought-provoking dialogue about corruption prevention, informal institutions, and the role of law in transitional societies. These conversations offered fresh comparative insights—especially as Turkey’s own experiences with legal reforms and governance have much to teach Central Asia.

Living abroad also required adapting to a different academic culture. I learned to appreciate the diversity of approaches to teaching, publishing, and mentorship. Turkish academia, with its mix of European, Middle Eastern, and local intellectual traditions, provided a fertile ground for creative thinking.

Personally, I found Istanbul to be an endless source of inspiration. Whether reading manuscripts in the quiet library of Marmara University or writing notes in a café overlooking the Golden Horn, the city’s layered history constantly reminded me of the continuity between past and present—between law as an institution and law as a living narrative.

MOCCA and the Value of Academic Mobility

The MOCCA project, involving the collaboration of European and Central Asian universities, has created a unique platform for interdisciplinary research on corruption, governance, and legal transformation. For me, the project’s greatest value lies in its community of scholars—a network that bridges law, sociology, and political science across different regions.

The secondment allowed me to concentrate exclusively on my research while engaging in intellectual exchanges that would have been impossible within the confines of a national academic environment. It strengthened my competencies in comparative research, qualitative methodology, and cross-cultural collaboration.

Importantly, it also reaffirmed the importance of mobility in academia. Stepping outside one’s home institution offers not just access to new resources, but also the chance to see one’s field from a fresh perspective. For a legal scholar from Kazakhstan, studying in Turkey—a country that straddles East and West, tradition and modernity—was particularly illuminating.

Looking Forward: From Research to Reform

After returning to Zhetysu University, I shared the insights gained during this secondment with my students and colleagues. I organized workshops on anti-corruption law and public ethics, integrating comparative perspectives from both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

I also contributed to policy discussions on improving the scientific anti-corruption examination system in Kazakhstan, advocating for greater transparency in how expert recommendations are incorporated into lawmaking. In collaboration with MOCCA partners, I hope to continue developing comparative research that bridges empirical findings with normative reform agendas.

I presented my findings at the MOCCA Mid-Term Conference in Lund, Sweden (May 2025), as part of the panel “Corruption in Non-Western Societies: Insights from Central Asia.” The dialogue between scholars from Europe and Central Asia served to deepen our understanding of how anti-corruption mechanisms evolve across different institutional settings.

A Personal Reflection

When I think of Istanbul now, I remember not only the grandeur of its mosques or the sparkle of the Bosphorus at sunset, but also the quiet sense of purpose that filled my days there. Every page I wrote, every discussion I had, felt connected to a larger vision—the belief that law can be a force for integrity and justice, even in imperfect systems.

My secondment reminded me that research is not just about gathering data or writing analyses. It is about building bridges—between countries, between disciplines, and ultimately, between ideals and practice. The experience has deepened my conviction that comparative law is not only an academic pursuit but a pathway to mutual understanding and collective progress.

Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful to Marmara University for hosting me with generosity and intellectual openness; to my colleagues and students at Zhetysu University for their continued support; and to the European Commission’s Horizon MSCA programme and MOCCA project coordination team at Lund University for making this exchange possible.

Finally, I thank the many experts and practitioners in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan who shared their knowledge and experiences—without their insights, this research would not have been possible.

Dr. Daniya Nurmukhankyzy
Professor of Law, Zhetysu University, Kazakhstan
MOCCA Research Fellow at Marmara University, Istanbul

My name is Gulnoza Aliakbarova, and from 15 February to 14 August 2024 I had the privilege of undertaking a guest research stay at Lund University’s Department of Sociology of Law, in the city of Lund, Sweden, while remaining formally affiliated with Kurultai Research and Consulting in Uzbekistan. This period has been in many ways transformative — personally, professionally, academically — and I would like here to share my reflections on both the lived experience of being abroad and the scholarly trajectory that led me into studying corruption in higher education in Uzbekistan.

Embracing life in Sweden: culture, everyday routines, and self-growth

Cultural immersion and day-to-day transitions

Living abroad always involves layering new routines on top of one’s core identity. I recall learning to navigate the Swedish system of public transport, discovering the joys of fika (coffee break) culture, experiencing the efficient, egalitarian interactions with colleagues and local residents, and gradually feeling comfortable with modest meals, clear air, and the sense of personal space and quiet that pervades Scandinavian everyday life. At first these things felt subtle, even unfamiliar: the emphasis on consensus, on punctuality, on leaving the office at a reasonable hour; the ease of saying “hej” to a passing neighbour; the freedom to wander the green spaces in and about Lund. Over time I found myself appreciating the slower rhythms: sitting by the canal, borrowing books from the university library in Swedish/English, joining a lunchtime seminar, and reflecting on my research while gazing out at the bare‐branches in late winter.

I also discovered how being an outsider invites both curiosity and self‐reflection. Walking through Lund’s old town, I sometimes felt the contrast between my life to date in Uzbekistan and this new setting. What had I taken for granted? What new assumptions was I learning? For example, I noticed how Swedish academic culture often emphasises flat hierarchies, open discussion in seminars, and a certain informality between senior and junior scholars — a contrast to many contexts I knew previously. This pushed me to reflect on my own cultural assumptions about how research is done, about mentorship, about collaboration.

Personal growth and adaptation

Living away from home for several months invariably brings small challenges. A different grocery store, different banking system, different ways of arranging social life. I had moments of missing my family, my home city, Uzbek food, the sense of local community. But at the same time I discovered a deeper sense of self-reliance: organising travel to Malmö or Copenhagen, joining a lunch conversation in English/Swedish, inviting a few colleagues for coffee, learning to manage productive research time alongside exploration of the south Swedish landscape. These months gave me space to reflect, to read widely, to sharpen my own research questions, and — crucially — to step back from the familiar and ask: what does it mean to do research on corruption in higher education when the setting is one country, but the theoretical frames are global?

This guest‐research stay has left me changed: more confident in interdisciplinary conversation, more comfortable with academic writing in English, more aware of cultural difference and what it brings to scholarship. I return to Uzbekistan with a renewed sense of purpose and with a little Swedish calm in my outlook.

Academic reflections: My research on corruption in Uzbek higher education

Research background and motivation

At Kurultai Research and Consulting I have been engaged with issues of governance, higher education policy, and corruption in Uzbek universities. Over the years I became increasingly aware of how higher education in Uzbekistan is not simply an innocuous arena of knowledge production, but one deeply enmeshed with issues of legitimacy, access, institutional culture and public trust.

Corruption in higher education is no longer an isolated anomaly: it is recognised as a systemic challenge in the Central Asia region and in Uzbekistan specifically. For example, a recent article in Policy Reviews in Higher Education highlights how reforming postgraduate education in Uzbekistan also reveals issues of staff retention, declining public funding and the emergence of corrupt practices (such as soliciting bribes from students) as one of the unintended consequences.

My research seeks to explore how such practices in Uzbek higher education impact institutional culture, student outcomes, academic legitimacy and the broader societal role of universities. I combine socio-legal frameworks (inspired by my time in Lund and exposure to Scandinavian scholarship) with fieldwork: interviews with university staff, students and external stakeholders; document analysis; and a comparative lens drawn from Central Asia and beyond.

Key research findings and reflections

During my stay at Lund I had the opportunity to refine my analytical lens and situate my Uzbekistan case within broader global debates. Some of the key insights I bring back:

– Structural pressures and resource scarcity: in Uzbekistan, declining public funding (the share of higher education expenditure fell from ~10 % of national education budget in 1990 to around ~5 % in 2013) created pressures that lead to staff retention issues and opened space for corrupt practices. My interviews confirmed that staff wages, heavy teaching loads, limited research support and weak accountability combine to create grey zones.

– Corruption as process, not moment: Corruption in secondary and tertiary education in Central Asia is not only about bribes for admission but also includes payments for grades, misuse of institutional funds, favouritism in faculty recruitment, and so on. My research in Uzbek HEIs likewise found that students describe experiences where informal payments, “extra consultations”, predetermined exam outcomes, and connections matter.

– Erosion of meritocratic norms and credibility: Another key reason is that Uzbek students increasingly view degrees as less valuable, partly because of perceptions of corruption permeating the governance and civil service system. This resonates with my fieldwork: when people believe the system is unfair, motivation, institutional trust, and the quality of graduate output suffer.

– Reform momentum and obstacles: While Uzbekistan has implemented a number of legislative and policy measures and the structural legacy of the Soviet‐era system, rapid expansion of HEIs, and weak follow-through mean that policy alone is not enough. My stay at Lund helped me think about what good practices might look like: transparent admission systems, strong internal audit mechanisms, participatory governance, incentives for research integrity, peer review, student feedback loops.

How the Lund stay enriched my research

Being at Lund University’s Department of Sociology of Law offered a number of vital benefits:

• Access to a stimulating academic community, seminars and research colloquia that widened my theoretical toolkit (for example, comparative sociologies of law, governance, corruption).
• Time to step back from the fast pace of fieldwork and write/refine a paper on my Uzbekistan findings, while benefiting from environment of calm scholarship and quality peer feedback.
• The chance to compare my Uzbekistan context with Swedish/European models: e.g., how Swedish universities handle academic integrity, how Scandinavian higher education deals with transparency and governance, and how those lessons might be adapted (respecting local context) in Uzbekistan.
• Personal growth in reading, writing, and networking: I became more comfortable presenting research in English, discussing with colleagues from different nationalities, and refining my research question to emphasise not just that corruption occurs but how and why, and what institutional responses may realistically succeed.

Looking ahead: What next?

As I return to Uzbekistan and resume my role at Kurultai Research and Consulting, I carry with me both the lived experience of life abroad and sharpened academic perspectives. Here are some goals and reflections for the near future:

• I aim to publish (in 2025) an article comparing two Uzbek universities on the basis of corruption dynamics, with reflections from my Lund stay: linking resource constraints, governance structures, student perception, and reform potential.
• I hope to collaborate with Uzbek higher education institutions to pilot an “anti-corruption governance audit” framework for universities: drawing on what I learned in Sweden about transparency, internal review, faculty‐student voice, and adapting it to the Uzbek context.
• On the personal side, I intend to maintain the habits developed in Lund: more regular writing time, seeking international collaboration, mentoring younger Uzbek scholars, and continuing to travel for comparative study.
• Finally, I recognise that research on corruption is sensitive: it involves power relations, institutional risk, and sometimes personal cost. My time abroad reinforced that rigorous scholarly work requires both courage and careful methodological planning, especially in contexts where disclosure may be difficult or contested.

In closing, my guest research stay at Lund University has been far more than a “visit” — it has been a period of maturation, of recalibration, of moving from being “in the field” to reflecting upon it, and of connecting personal growth with academic ambition. I return to Uzbekistan invigorated, thoughtful, and determined to contribute to higher education reform, integrity, and scholarship in meaningful ways.

Thank you for reading. I hope sharing this reflection is useful both for those interested in academic mobility and for those engaged in the challenging but vital work of understanding corruption in higher education systems.