But then there is the historic significance of Uzbekistan as part of the old silk route that cannot be missed and had to be visited as well. Samarkand and Bukhara were top of my list. Growing up in Pakistan, our history is tied closely to Central Asia. Our ancestors, the Mughals, came to the subcontinent from Uzbekistan and are direct descendants of Amir Temur, the founding father of the nation. It was interesting to relive my history lessons during my visit and explore shared history and narratives that highlighted the importance of several cities and locations in Pakistan.

Having a natural pull towards academia, I really enjoyed my visit to Bukhara which is known as the city of Madrasahs. Today, using the word madrasahs denotes a place of religious instruction, however that is not true as the madrasahs are traditional variant to what we call a university today. Bukhara was quite charming as a historic hub of science and learning with the number of specialized madrassahs and the scholars it was home too. In Samarkand, visiting the astronomical observatory that laid the foundation of modern astro-physics was a treat. This learning and growing is also reflected today in the number of universities in Uzbekistan and the evolution that the country is going through.

At the end of the day, MOCCA project was instrumental in introducing me to a new country, culture, making new friends and connections on a personal and professional level that I carry forward. Thus, I don’t think this small reflection will do justice to my time in Uzbekistan, and I look forward to returning on subsequent opportunities.

By Scott Abel, researcher from the Estonian Business School

I am Scott Abel, a PhD student and lecturer at the Estonian Business. I had just arrived in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in November 2024 for my secondment at the OSCE Academy, and the taxi that picked me off at the airport had just dropped me off at the flat I had rented for my month’s stay about a block away from the university.

It turned out that my first taste of corruption in Central Asia for the MOCCA project wasn’t going to be theoretical.

Although I had booked my flat through Booking.com and was supposed to have my credit card billed, my landlord, a Russian, demanded cash in broken English instead for the month’s payment. He seemed surprised that I thought it would be taken by Booking.com instead. Fighting jet lag after a 12-hour door-to-door flight overnight from Tallinn I finally convinced him to give me a day, and I would pay him the rent in cash.

I should have gone to a bank, but not knowing my way around, I instead drained an ATM with multiple withdrawals to get the correct amount of Kyrgyzstani som. However, the largest note was 1,000 som out of the machine (1 euro is about 90 som), so the stack of bills for the rent took two hands to hold onto.

This became an issue when the landlord returned the next night. I had sent him an agreement by email that I typed up stating that I had paid him the agreed amount, converted with the official exchange rate. Not only had he not read it, but he showed up drunk and, with that, had lost any ability to speak English. So we carried on a terse conversation on my phone through Google Translate. He signed the document, and I counted the cash out in front of him. He then wanted to count it himself, but he couldn’t do the math in his current state. Then, after trying several times and giving up, he then wanted to question the exchange rate on the document he had already signed.

At some point, as the landlord, who had the body of a basketball player and at least 10 centimeters on me, got more agitated, I slipped a kitchen knife into my back pocket, as I was getting very concerned that this meeting would go sideways.

But all of a sudden, he decided it wasn’t worth it anymore and departed. So, in the end, it worked out, with just a little stress and drama added on for me so he didn’t have to pay a 10% state tax. I did shut off my credit card as a precaution, however, and made sure that was the last time I saw him during my month’s stay.

My intent in my research project was to essentially duplicate a study that I had just finished in Estonia, where I interviewed a couple of dozen veteran journalists and managing editors at local media houses about how they think about their profession. The questions I asked were built on a hierarchy of topics, from micro (individual perspectives) to macro (the legal and ideological underpinnings of media practice), and the result ended up collecting an enormous amount on their perceptions of corruption and how to combat it. After figuring out the process in my Estonian study, I thought it would be a good way to approach the topic in Bishkek.

But as the American boxer Mike Tyson once famously said, “Everyone has a plan until they get punched in the face.”

Initially, I couldn’t get anyone to talk to me. With Estonian journalists, that was no problem. However, in Kyrgyzstan, several journalists and society activists had been jailed by the government in the months leading up to my secondment, and the journalists I reached out to didn’t respond to my inquiries.

By the end of my second week, I was seriously concerned I would be leaving the country without any research being done, so I started to re-evaluate my approach. Before coming to Kyrgyzstan, I had looked at a research article where the author had gone to the Ashgabat market in Turkmenistan and interviewed vendors about their day-to-day encounters with corrupt officials and police. I thought that was a very elegant way of getting around governmental restrictions.

So, I started looking for my own local advantages, and I found them first at the OSCE Academy. The school is more than 20 years old and has students from all over Central Asia and beyond for its programs in economics, politics and security, and human rights. In my first couple of weeks, I participated in a couple of the courses, met some of the students, and started formulating an alternative research agenda.

Instead, I decided to work with what I had, which was a collection of Gen Z-aged students that I could interact with face-to-face. I started asking a few of them for interviews about what kinds of corruption they have faced in their lives in their home countries, from education, governmental administration, the private sector, and even in sectors like sports. Once I got rolling, I was able to expand to other local universities (there are between 20 and 40 institutes of higher learning in the city, depending on your criteria, and several major ones within easy walking distance of the Academy). Once I had done a few interviews, snowball sampling, where you get interviewees to recommend other people, had me doing multiple interviews a day lasting between an hour and 90 minutes each.

But in week three, I caught a lucky break on my original concept with Kyrgyzstani journalists. The OSCE Academy held a two-day Security Conference in December, and the friendly and gregarious interim director of the Academy, Pal Dunay, asked me to moderate a panel on cybersecurity. After the panel session was over, two local journalists who were in attendance introduced themselves and chatted me up. After consenting to be interviewed, they introduced me to others, so my final week was full of meetings with local media figures.

When I left in late December, I had been able to gather roughly half of the interviews that I needed for the study I intended (which I still want to complete this year), and all the interviews I need for the study that I came up with on the fly.

What did I learn that I wish I had known going in my experience? When using people as your source of data in Central Asia, it’s paramount that you describe in detail how you are going to use their data and how it will be reported upfront. Most would generally talk about their country and their hometown, but some, for example, from Turkmenistan, were in real fear of anything they said blowing back on them or their families back home, so I drew up a contract that stated specifically how the data would be used (for example, a transcript would be created from a voice recording, and then the audio would be erased; no personal demographic information, like age or sex, would be collected). In my case, I didn’t even write down their names and gave them anonymity aside from an interview number.

Second, I never got an interview with either of my target topics only through email, but only with personal interaction and referrals. Assuaging their concerns about privacy and having others vouch for my process was the only way for my interpersonal research process to succeed.

In a broader context, the sooner you figure out transport, the more efficiently you can use your time in Bishkek. Google Maps is useless there; 2GIS is the standard, and once you have that you can use the bus system efficiently. Yandex is the standard taxi app, but it was blocked on my phone, but there is an alternative called inDrive, in which you submit bids for a ride, and once I had that, that opened up the city for me. Azamat Satarov in the main office was my go-to person in addressing my tech problems, and Aiganysh Niyazalieva answered all of my other ones about the town, and helped me get set up in the Academy.

The one regret I have is the time of year I went. Kyrgyzstan is a lovely, mountainous country, and Bishkek sits at the base of the Kyrgz Ala-Too range. However, during the winter months, the combination of low-octane petrol, coal burning, and a lack of wind circulation at the base of the range can make the air pollution terrible. Even though the mountains are only a few kilometers away, on bad days, I simply couldn’t see them, and the stench was … something. On my last day, Bishkek had the worst air quality of any city in the world. I hope to go again soon, but it won’t be in winter.

The best part of my secondment was parachuting as a stranger into a strange land, and thrusting myself into a situation where I had to adjust my tactics to make my strategies work. The OSCE Academy personnel were gracious hosts, and the students I got to know were some of the best the countries of Central Asia have to offer. I hope some of you reading this choose this option for your secondment. Please feel free to drop me an email at the Estonian Business School if you’d like me to answer your own questions.

by Nazgul Baigabatova and Aliya Kashaganova, Zhetysu University (Kazakhstan)

Between 1 November and 30 December 2024, we completed a two-month secondment at Lund University, Sweden, as part of the MOCCA project. This research stay was an important milestone in our research career, providing a unique opportunity to deepen our knowledge, exchange experiences with colleagues and establish useful international connections.

Ranked 75th in the QS World Rankings and 95th in the Times Higher Education 2024 rankings, Lund University is one of the world’s leading universities. Renowned for its interdisciplinary approaches and international co-operation, the university has been an inspiring place for us as researchers and has opened new horizons for academic endeavours.

Lund University was founded in 1666 and has since become a symbol of academic success. This university attracts students and scholars from all over the world due to its reputation and achievements in various fields of study, including social sciences and humanities.

We interned in the Department of Sociology of Law, which is one of the leading departments in the university and is renowned for its interdisciplinary research in law, sociology and politics. This Department became an important centre for us, where we were able to learn about the latest methods and approaches in research practice, as well as to gain a deeper understanding of the current social and political issues we are studying in Kazakhstan.

We had an excellent opportunity to present and discuss the preliminary results of our research on the MOCCA project to other colleagues from different countries. Nazgul Baigabatova gave a presentation on ‘Legal and policy hurdles in attaining Kazakhstani citizenship’. During the presentation, based on the results of field research, she highlighted in detail the main legal, administrative barriers, social problems and corruption risks faced by ethnic immigrants in obtaining Kazakhstani citizenship. Aliya Kashaganova presented a report on ‘Corruption in the secondary education system in the Zhetysu region’. In her report she detailed the problems of corruption in the educational system and analysed their impact on the quality of education in the region. Our presentations provoked heated discussion, became the basis for constructive exchange of opinions and formulation of new ideas that we will be able to use in our scientific and practical activities.

In addition, we had a great opportunity to participate in various academic activities of the Department of Sociology of Law, which was an important element of our internship. During the secondment we attended several guest lectures, seminars and workshops, which allowed us to deepen our knowledge and exchange experiences with leading experts from different countries:

– ‘The making of a pariah class: activist lawyers’ experiences of post-imperial chauvinism», Hilary Sommerlad (University of Leeds) – the seminar addressed important issues of rights of marginalised groups and human rights activism in post-imperial transformations;

– ‘MOCCA Workshop on Interdisciplinary Approaches and Methods to Understanding and Combatting Corruption: Theory, Practice and Policy-Making’, Department of Sociology of Law at Lund University;

– ‘Practical Use of AI for Researchers in Sweden’,  Abderisak Adam (Chalmers University of Technology), which looked at applications of artificial intelligence in social and humanities research;

– ‘Research Seminar in Sociology of Law: Imperialism and Constitutional Law», Chris Thornhill (University of Birmingham);

– a seminar at which MOCCA project participants from Kazakhstan and Estonia made their presentations. The first was ‘Educational Governance, Corruption and Student Achievement in Post-Communist Countries’, presented by Faisal Mohammed from the Estonian Business School. The second was ‘Economic Aspects of the Impact of Corruption on Infrastructure in Kazakhstan’, presented by Dinara Rakhmatullaeva and Talifa Mansurova from the Eurasian Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies.

Participation in these events significantly broadened our scientific horizons, allowed us to get acquainted with new trends and tools of research strategy.

An important factor for us as researchers was the environment, first of all the people who were with us during these two months and of course the city.

The city of Lund, founded in the 10th century, located in southern Sweden, is one of the oldest and most atmospheric cities in the country, with a rich historical heritage and a unique cultural atmosphere that has created an ideal environment for scientific work. The majestic medieval buildings, the famous Lund Cathedral, picturesque parks and cosy streets of the city have created an inspiring environment that fosters creativity in solving scientific problems. Lund is not only famous for its history, but is also actively innovating in urban development, combining ancient architecture with modern technology and sustainable practices. This amazing combination of tradition and progress has become a great basis for work and personal growth. Lund is a city where the comfortable and dynamic environment, both for living and working, allowed us to focus on research, immerse ourselves in interdisciplinary studies and make the most of every moment of the secondment.

The secondment was not only an important stage in our professional development, but also a source of many inspiring moments, we found new friends and like-minded people here.

We express our sincere and deep gratitude to the Principal Investigator of Project Rustamjon Urinboyev and his whole team for excellent organisation and support at every stage of the secondment. For two months we became a part of the Department where these wonderful people work.

From the first days of the secondment, we felt how carefully every aspect of the programme had been thought through. Professor Rustamjon Urinboyev demonstrated a high level of professionalism, attention to detail and sincere interest in our research. Each of us had the opportunity to feel part of a friendly and motivated team, which was the key to our success.

The secondment at Lund University was not only a valuable academic experience for us, but also a stage of professional growth. We came to the conviction that international co-operation and exchange of ideas are necessary to address the complex issues we face in Kazakhstan. This experience has given us new ideas that we will implement in our academic and practical activities.

In the future, we plan to apply the knowledge and skills we have gained to advance scientific research. We will actively work on publications, organise workshops and dialogues with public and political figures to ensure that our research has practical implications for improving life in our country.

by Patrik Olsson, from Lund University

Arriving at 04.10 am to Tashkent on a cold morning October 16, the mission was plentiful but first and foremost to participate in an international conference with nationwide broadcasted discussions in relation to past- and ongoing legal reforms and the democratic development in Uzbekistan.  The international conference that I participated in on “Development of Free Civil Society and Non-Governmental Non-Profit Organizations” was held in Tashkent on October 18 and 24, 2024, as part of International Cooperation Initiative Week. Foreign and domestic experts, state bodies, non-governmental and non-commercial organizations, scientific representatives, and political party activists all attended the conference. At the conference, Uzbekistan’s reforms in the way of democratic development, in particular, fundamental changes in the field of civil society, the country’s achievements in terms of openness and transparency were brought to the attention of the world community. Original source: https://strategy.uz/index.php?news=1981

My participation was made possible on an invitation from the Development Strategy Centre and moreover very well managed by TSUL and the Ministry of Justice in Uzbekistan. During the intense and interesting visit to Tashkent I was involved in numerous meetings and presentations with professionals, policy makers, authorities, think tanks, INGOs, CSOs, organizations and students ranging from Universities like TSUL, NUU and the Law Enforcement Academy and representative from the GPO. Due to the kindness and eagerness of assisting foreign colleagues I was also able to collect relevant research material for upcoming articles and projects while also participating in TV-interviews regarding the then forthcoming elections for the Uzbek Parliament, October 27 in 2024, that was both nationally broadcasted and on CNN.

A common denominator in all discussions, presentations and meetings was the progress of anti-corruption- and rule of law work and the various mechanisms attached to this area. Uzbekistan is rapidly changing form in terms of living quality, infrastructure, transparency, modernization, the political landscape and openness to mention some aspects concerning the daily life for Uzbeks. The Law Enforcement Academy with its director Evgeniy Kolenko has invested in new state-of-the-art facilities becoming and technological know-how, which will most likely make the Law Enforcement Academy an important hub for training prosecutors in Central Asia and the region.

by Zamir Aiylchyev, from the Anti-Corruption Business Council under the President of the Kyrgyz Republic.

From October to December 2024, I participated in a research secondment at the Institute of International Relations and Political Science (IIRPS) at Vilnius University in Lithuania. The primary goal of this secondment was to study the experiences of Lithuania and the Baltic states in preventing and combating corruption. I chose Lithuania as my research destination because of the remarkable success of Lithuania and the Baltic states in reducing corruption and improving governance. Their accession to the European Union in 2004 played a key role in strengthening transparency, the rule of law, and effective governance, significantly reducing corruption levels. According to Transparency International’s 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index, Estonia ranked 12th globally with a score of 76, Lithuania ranked 34th with 61 points, and Latvia ranked 36th with 60 points. These results reflect the impact of strong political will, effective legal frameworks, and the integration of digital transformation.  The lessons from the Baltic states provide a valuable model for Kyrgyzstan. By adopting and adapting these practices, Kyrgyzstan can improve the transparency of public services and achieve a better position in international rankings.

About the Institute of International Relations and Political Science (IIRPS) The IIRPS is one of Lithuania’s most prestigious academic institutions, operating as part of Vilnius University, which was established in 1579. Founded in 1992, the institute focuses on training professionals and conducting research in international relations, political science, and related fields. The institute offers:

– Bachelor’s Programs: Providing foundational knowledge in political science and international relations.

– Master’s Programs: Offering advanced studies in political analysis, international security, and specialized areas of international relations.

– Doctoral Programs: Supporting research and advanced academic work in political science and related disciplines.

The  Institute of International Relations and Political Science IIRPS promotes research in key areas such as political, social, and economic changes in the post-Soviet region, European international law, and diplomacy. The institute collaborates closely with domestic and international organizations, governments, NGOs, and universities. It also participates in exchange programs within frameworks like the European Union and NATO, hosting international conferences, seasonal schools, and thematic seminars. During my secondment, I attended five to six key seminars and connected with a diverse group of people, including professors, researchers, and students from Europe and Central Asia. These interactions allowed me to share insights about Kyrgyzstan’s culture and political system while learning from others’ perspectives.

On November 21, 2024, I met with representatives of the Lithuanian Special Investigation Service (STT). Originally planned with Deputy Director Mr. Egidijus Radzevicius, I instead met with Ms. Dovile Barole, a Senior Specialist in the International Relations Department, due to schedule changes. The meeting offered valuable insights into STT’s work. Established under the 2000 “Law on the Special Investigation Service,” the STT is tasked with investigating corruption offenses, developing preventive measures, and promoting transparency. The agency also has a dedicated Prevention Division focusing on raising public awareness and enhancing anti-corruption mechanisms.

On November 26, 2024, I met Ms. Ingrida Kalinauskene, Head of Transparency International’s Lithuanian Chapter. This meeting, facilitated by my colleague Professor Konstantinos, provided in-depth information about Lithuania’s strategies for combating corruption. Ms. Kalinauskene highlighted the importance of political will in driving anti-corruption reforms. I shared how similar political will has been demonstrated in Kyrgyzstan under President Sadyr Japarov, who established the Anti-Corruption Business Council in 2021. This council spearheaded the development of the National Anti-Corruption Strategy for 2025–2030, aiming to strengthen political stability, boost economic growth, and improve Kyrgyzstan’s international standing.

On December 13, 2024, I delivered a seminar titled “What is the Secret Behind the Baltic States’ Success in Combating Corruption?” at the IIRPS. The seminar compared the anti-corruption approaches of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania with those of Kyrgyzstan. While the Baltic states have successfully implemented strong legislation, political determination, and digital tools, Kyrgyzstan’s recent reforms show promise but still require significant progress, as evidenced by its 141st ranking in Transparency International’s 2023 index. The seminar offered practical recommendations for enhancing Kyrgyzstan’s anti-corruption efforts.

When I arrived in Vilnius, adjusting to the city’s climate and living conditions was very easy. The climate in Vilnius is similar to that of Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, which made the adaptation process smooth and effortless. Vilnius is a city rich in history, with its roots tracing back to the 14th century. It was first mentioned in written records in 1323 by Duke Gediminas. During that period, Vilnius emerged as a major hub for trade, politics, and culture in Eastern Europe. By the 15th and 16th centuries, it had become the administrative and cultural center of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Merchants, craftsmen, and people of various ethnicities traveled to Vilnius from as far as Crimea and different corners of Europe. The city saw the development of schools, churches, palaces, and a thriving cultural and scientific scene.

Today, Vilnius stands out with its modern infrastructure, ancient churches, and welcoming residents, creating an ideal environment for research and professional development. In 1994, the Old Town of Vilnius was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. This historic district features medieval architectural landmarks, baroque-style churches, and buildings of great historical significance. The political and socio-economic landscape of Vilnius has been significantly influenced by the First and Second World Wars. The city experienced occupations, alliances, and divisions, repeatedly coming under the control of neighboring powers. In 1940, Lithuania became part of the Soviet Union, but in 1990, the country regained its independence, with Vilnius reestablished as the capital of a sovereign Lithuania. Today, Vilnius is one of the leading cultural, economic, and educational centers in the Baltic region. Vilnius is not only rich in history and culture but also a city of learning. Thousands of international students come to Vilnius University every year to pursue their education. I was particularly impressed by the university’s advanced libraries, state-of-the-art classrooms, and overall conducive environment, which significantly facilitated my research activities. The city’s inclusive atmosphere and focus on fostering international collaboration made my work highly productive, allowing me to gain valuable experiences and expand my network. Vilnius truly stands out as a city where history, culture, and modern academic excellence merge, offering a unique experience for both visitors and residents alike.

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to the entire team at the Institute of International Relations and Political Science of Vilnius University for their comprehensive support and assistance during my business trip. In particular, I extend my sincerest thanks to Professor Konstantinos of Vilnius University, Ms. Rasa Bortkevicute, Head of the Research Department, and Mr. Benas Putrimas, Research Communications Coordinator, for their invaluable help throughout my stay.

I would also like to extend my profound gratitude to the Department of Sociology of Law at Lund University and the project team for their professionalism and high-level support in successfully organizing this visit under the MOCCA project.

The insights and knowledge gained during this experience will play a crucial role in strengthening Kyrgyzstan’s efforts to combat corruption and improve governance.

by Ismatulloev I.U., guest researcher from Tajik State University of Commerce

According to the invitation from the MOCCA (Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia) project and the prior agreement with the project partner universities,  I spent two months of my next secondment in two partner universities  – Lund University in Sweden and Charles  University in the Czech Republic.

It was my second stay in Lund. The secondment  was already on another level, there was no need to get to know the city and the university. Therefore, this time we were fully involved in the research: very important meetings with the project coordinators and consultants, reviewing the work already done and discussing the detailed content and chapters  of future activities. As my impressions of Lund and Lund University already been published, this time I decided to write about Prague and Charles University.

From September 17 to October 20, we continued our secondment  at the Charles University in  the Czech Republic. The project representatives from Charles University, especially Anna Jordanova planned our visit in advance and took care of the organizational issues before we arrived in Prague, for which we are very grateful.

During the secondment at Charles University in Prague, the first thing that comes to mind is the historical aspect of the city of Prague. To be honest, I have never seen such a historical city in my life, where every street and corner reminds of its history. In all corners of Prague, you can see only history, ancient buildings, castles, manors and statues and monuments of different eras. Charles Bridge, Vatslav Square, Old Town, Old Prague Castle, Old Square, Prague Astronomical Clock and dozens and hundreds of other historical monuments that cover the whole city, and  in every corner of the city, you will only breathe history and feel history.

The Charles University  is also a part of this history and was founded in 1348 by Charles IV and is considered one of the oldest universities in Central and Eastern Europe. It is said that Prince Karl, who was only 33 years old at that time, studied in France, regularly attended lectures and studies at the Sorbonne University, and always dreamed that such a university would be established in his country.

Currently, more than 50,000 students study at Charles  University, more than 10,000 of them are foreign students.

Our secondment took place mainly in the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Institute of International Studies. You enter the faculty library, which is very large and spacious and consists of four floors, from the entrance hall of the faculty. The scientific resources of the library are very rich, and from there it is possible to find the books and sources of the libraries of other universities in a virtual way.

At the beginning of the Secondment, we participated in the first organizational meeting of the department, which was held after the vacation, and also participated in a seminar on the topic of a new research method called autoethnography, and learned about this modern research method.

Then a series of meetings were held with teachers and professors of the departments of the Faculty of Social Sciences, as well as representatives of the departments of enterprise economy and international business (as well as from the Metropolitan University of Prague and the Higher School of Economics). In these meetings, useful and exchange conversations were held on the topics of the studied subjects and educational materials.

There were so many meetings and places visited that there was not enough time for some important events, such as visits and meetings at the Center for Knowledge and Technology Transfer of Charles University. Yes, not only from the history, but even you don’t get enough to gain experience in research and academic  affairs  at Charles University in Prague.

by Khasan Sayfutdinov, Senior Lecturer at Westminster International University in Tashkent

Living Cost in the Istanbul

The cost of both accommodation and daily expenses increased in Istanbul. In 2024, Istanbul climbed 55 spots to become the 130th most expensive city for expatriates. Rents in Istanbul surged by 301%, while in Ankara, tenants faced an average increase of 141%.[1]New Airbnb regulations[2] also imposed which states that Hosts renting entire real estate properties (e.g. entire homes, apartments) for less than 100 nights must obtain a Permit Certificate for Touristic Rental of Residence (“Konutun Turizm Amaçlı Kiralanmasına Ilişkin İzin Belgesi”). The permit needs to be obtained regardless of the purpose for which the accommodation is rented (e.g. education, health, work, etc.). In the beginning, it was difficult to find hosts who were willing to rent for one month. Later we managed to find and rent one apartment in the Besiktas area.

Getting Around: How to get the Medipol University  

Source:IETT https://iett.istanbul/RouteDetail?hkod=121A&routename=BEYKOZ%20-%20MEC%C4%B0D%C4%B0YEK%C3%96Y

I usually commute by bus 121A to the south campus of the university. It took 15 minutes from Levent to the Kavacik bus stop. It is really convenient to reach the South Campus from the European side of the city.

About the campus (South Campus)

Kavacık South Campus

The South Campus covers the School of Medicine, International School of Medicine, School of Dentistry, School of Pharmacy, Medipol Business School, School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, and School of Law. I have used the library since it was empty during the summer. The library has also offered access to the e-resources. At the end of July, newly enrolled students started their induction week. The University campus is really modern and you can find a Starbucks coffee shop on the ground floor

About the Research:

My research is about fair competition in the retail market and types of corruption in the private sector. Corruption flourishes in industries where markets function poorly, and corruption is short-lived and limited in industries where markets function well. Fair competition drives out corruptive practices in the relevant industries. During my research stay, I have also learned about the level of transparency in trade-related regulations (technical regulations, custom valuation, calculation of tariffs, accessibility of non-tariff for imported products) and measures.  At the micro level, I have also researched “slotting fees” in  traditional retail markets. Generally, slotting fees are charged in various forms and different manners. Some retailers charge fees only as an insurance payment for new products and allocate the shelf space according to sales figures for their regular assortment. Since I was focusing on market access to the local market. I had the opportunity to meet the relevant people who introduced products and services to the Uzbekistan market. They have shared their experience with the issues in the distribution and realization of their products in the retail market. According to the initial result of my discussion with market participants, I can say that the common perception of corruption among businesspeople is that corruption only concerns the public sector. The illicit trade practice or any measures which modify the conditions in the relevant market, business people always perceived that the main regulator should take more severe measures to ensure fair competition in the market of goods and services. Discussions involved issues relating to introducing goods to the big retailers and wholesale market. As we know from previous studies in business relations salespeople and buying agents have often developed long-term partnerships and gifts may express their mutual appreciation. In this context, it might be difficult to decide whether a gift values long-term business relations or should be considered as an attempt of bribery. However, extraordinarily expensive gifts, favours done to spouses or family members and especially gifts offered before doing business can raise suspicion that such gifts are intended to unduly influence the recipient and should be conceived as an attempt at bribery (Aßländer, M.S. and Storchevoy 2017 ).

 Weekends

During the weekends, I have the opportunity to visit the historical and modern sites of Istanbul. The people in Istanbul is always welcoming and accommodating

Reference list

Aßländer, M.S. and Storchevoy, M.A., 2017. Corruption in the retail industry. In The Handbook of Business and Corruption: Cross-Sectoral Experiences (pp. 481-505). Emerald Publishing Limited.

[1] https://www.mercer.com/insights/total-rewards/talent-mobility-insights/cost-of-living/

[2] January 2024, Law n. 7464

by Julita Slipkauskaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

I am Julita Slipkauskaitė. I am an assistant at the Faculty of Philosophy and a representative of Vilnius University in the MOCCA project. My research interests range from Late Medieval philosophy and the philosophy of history to conspiracy theories. It was the latter that led me to the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in early March 2024. Looking back, I can confidently say that this experience marked an excellent start to my academic career.

I arrived in Bishkek in early March and stayed until early May. I was warmly greeted by the newly appointed Director of the Academy Dr. Kate E Walker and Project and Training specialist Dr. Almakan Orozobekova at the OSCE Academy.

My first glimpse of Bishkek: OSCE’s promotion on one of the central streets.

I came to Bishkek with a research project in mind, suggested by my colleague and mentor on this project prof. Ainė Ramonaitė. Our initial aim was to explore a hypothesis proposed by Sinan Alper, which claims that people living in countries with higher levels of corruption are more prone to conspiracy ideation. Subsequently, we planned to examine the prevailing conspiracy theories and how their spread has evolved since the Covid-19 pandemic.

As we delved deeper into the literature and complexities of this topic, the connection between conspiratorial thinking and corruption became increasingly intriguing. On the one hand, the correlation between the two phenomena was clear; on the other hand, almost no causal explanation for this link has been proposed. Recognising this gap in the literature, we set out to address it. Unfortunately, the topic turned out to be too sensitive and practically unattainable for a foreigner. By the time our secondments ended, we had made a significant progress on the theoretical aspects of the research and had developed the research design. During our final presentation at the OSCE Academy we explained the empirical and conceptual connections between the two phenomena. However, the true challenge – conducting a comparative analysis between Lithuanians and Kyrgyz people – remains for future research.

At the OSCE Academy

Despite the research challenges, Kyrgyzstan was an exciting country to experience. From its nature, landscape and traditional culture to the dynamics of its major cities, every corner of the country amazed me. However, the highlight of my experience was meeting students and listening to their stories. Everyone I encountered in Kyrgyzstan – whether at the OSCE Academy, the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan, or Ala-Too International University, as well as young people I randomly met in the city – exhibited resilience, creativity, and a strong awareness of their role in shaping their country’s present and future. I was particularly impressed by their individual initiative to practice the Kyrgyz language vigorously and act as ambassadors of their country and culture. Finally, coming from a small country, I was surprised to find that frequently locals had some connection to Lithuania or knew a great deal about it. This always served as a great conversation starter.

OSCE Academy students celebrate Nowruz, the Persian New Year, with performances.

Members of the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan.

I would like to thank the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project and the OSCE Academy in Bishkek for a secondment in Kyrgyzstan, which helped me set a foot in my field and deepen my understanding of Central Asia.

by Tolibjon Mustafoev, PhD candidate at Lund University 

For the last few decades, Uzbekistan has been a popular research destination for many scholars studying authoritarian regimes. Indeed, the first president of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov, had been in power from the first days of independence in 1991 until September 2016. Karimov was known for his policies on closed economy, high bureaucracy, centralised control over business climate and civil society, strong state security and brutal foreign politics. As the guardian mentioned, Karimov ‘ruled with the iron feast’ for twenty-five years. But then when Mirziyoyev took the lead, the Uzbek nation experienced some democratic shifts in many areas including the economy (ex. currency exchange became liberal and the Central Bank’s authority space for dictating the rules in the banking sector was shrunk)), public services (initiation of Single Window State Service Center), taxation and business. The most important changes occurred after the nationwide referendum for the new version of the constitution of Uzbekistan on 30 April 2023. The new constitution emphasizes that Uzbekistan is a social state and that it needs to move towards the establishment of a welfare state and provide equal access to social security for citizens. However, Uzbek authorities had been preparing for new constitutional amendments long before their adoption. Starting from 2021 citizens were categorized into different segments based on their economic conditions by taking into account the gender and age dimensions. As a result, unemployed youth were categorised as ‘ununited youth’ and a special register named ‘Youth Notebook’ was created, unemployed and economically disadvantaged women were registered in so-called ‘Iron Notebooks’. Each category of citizens falls under special state programmes that provide access to low-interest loans, free equipment to start mini-scale businesses and many more.

Hence, in the case of Uzbekistan, we can witness how a state shifted its focus from state security to social development in a matter of less than five years. In this blog post, I try to briefly provide analyses of policy developments directed at establishing a welfare state and eradicating poverty in Uzbekistan. My motivation to write this blog post appeared during my secondment from the MOCCA project to Uzbekistan in 2024. During the secondment period, I collaborated with two professors from the University of Zurich, Peter Finke and Meltem Sancak and three of us organised joined fieldwork in rural areas of Uzbekistan to collect data on the implementation of poverty reduction policies and state programmes in real-life.  During the data collection process, we interviewed representatives of khokimlar (mayors), specifically, khokim yordamchilari (assistants to khokimlar), citizens who participated in state programmes for eradicating poverty and citizens who decided not to be engaged with state programmes regardless of their harsh economic conditions and poor living standards. Such a diversity of respondents helped us to understand the ongoing reformatory agenda in Uzbekistan from many perspectives such as from the top-down (during the interviews with khokim yordamchilari) and from the bottom-up (vulnerable citizens). This blog post mainly focuses on policy analyses by referring to only some of the fieldwork data, whereas this topic is planned to be covered by a larger research scope for further publication as an article.

To start with, historically, Uzbekistan’s legislative efforts to eradicate poverty from its Independence Day on 31st August 1991 to 2025 can be analyzed by looking at key reforms, policies, and actions undertaken by the government to address economic disparities, social inequalities, and poverty alleviation during that period. In this blog post, I analyze policy developments on eradicating poverty and establishing social welfare in Uzbekistan by looking into four different periods and by linking the latest reformatory agendas to the cases and experiences of private persons who participated in our fieldwork as respondents:

Transition Period and Early Reforms (1991–2000)

When Uzbekistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union, its citizens and institutions experienced economic instability, a collapse of state subsidies, and high inflation. Due to the fact that Uzbekistan inherited a highly centralized and inefficient economy, the legal and institutional framework needed to be restructured to address poverty, but legislative actions during this period were limited, focusing primarily on maintaining state control and stabilizing the economy. A year after its independence, the Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted and it enshrined fundamental human rights, including the right to work and access to social security. Although the Constitution recognized social welfare as an important goal, the legal structure for addressing poverty was not fully developed at this stage. Although some social security nets such as child benefits and pensions were introduced, they were limited in scope and lacked effectiveness due to economic constraints. During this period, from an economic perspective, the Government of Uzbekistan mostly concentrated its focus on reforms to Land Law which aimed at the redistribution of land to improve agricultural productivity and reduce rural poverty (Melnikovová, 2016). However, new land policies remained a challenging task to be implemented due to a shortage of local state funds and poor infrastructure. Moreover, this period included a mass privatization of state enterprises which resulted in uneven distribution of wealth and assets among citizens (Rakhman Khan, 1996).

Strengthening Social Programs and Economic Development (2000–2010)

The 2000s marked a period of gradual economic growth in Uzbekistan, accompanied by a stronger emphasis on poverty alleviation through targeted social policies. The government began to focus more systematically on addressing poverty through legal reforms and institutional adjustments. After a series of consultations with international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, the government of Uzbekistan adopted a Poverty Reduction Strategy in 2005 aimed at increasing economic growth, diversifying the economy, and reducing regional and social disparities (IMF, 2005). One of the interesting facts about the strategy is that it did not consider employment as a guarantee against poverty, which is not the case for how the current government of Uzbekistan frames the concept of employment which I reflect later in the text. This entire strategy was addressed and evaluated by the International Monetary Fund in its report from 2015. In its report, the IMF highlighted the possibility of accelerating economic growth only in the case of sustained macroeconomic stability (2005). Moreover, the IMF report highlights the necessity for the improvement of the credit policy through 2005 by expansion of the incidence of market mechanisms of the distribution of credit resources and creation of a full-scale money market and liberalization of commercial banks’ interest rates. Uzbekistan reflected on some of the recommendations of the IMF on social programmes and rural area development recommendation. Also, a new legislation ‘Law on Microcredit Institutions’ adopted on September 20, 2006, facilitated access to financial resources for small-scale entrepreneurs, particularly in rural areas. Microfinance institutions became an important tool for poverty alleviation, enabling small businesses and farmers to invest in income-generating activities. However, microfinance organizations attracted a large number of shareholders and private investment creating financial challenges for the banking sector of Uzbekistan. Moreover, the absence of intensive competition in the market of microfinance organizations caused a cross-indebtedness among the population in Uzbekistan (Sabi, 2013).

Comprehensive Reforms and International Cooperation (2010–2020)

The policies on the economy became less liberal in the early 2010s due to the introduction of heavy state control over private credit organizations creating bureaucratic challenges for private credit unions to keep providing financial services to people in rural areas. Adoption of the decision of the Chairman of the Central Bank of Uzbekistan  ‘On the Approval of the Regulation on Requirements for the Credit Policy of Credit Associations’ from 24 March 2011 ceased the further development of credit unions in the state.  Then, almost a decade after the IMF 2005 report on the Poverty Reduction Strategy, Uzbekistan puts forward the agenda for mass reform of the banking sector which becomes the first big step towards liberalizing the economy. That step was taken under the rule of new president Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who came to power in 2016. His administration prioritised a shift towards more inclusive economic growth, deeper legal reforms, and engagement with international organizations on poverty reduction.

 During the first years of new leadership, Uzbekistan launched its National Development Strategy for 2017-2021, which prioritized the reduction of poverty, improving living standards, creating jobs, and ensuring social inclusion. The strategy included legal reforms aimed at enhancing the welfare system, education, and healthcare. In addition, the decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan from 5 April 2018 ‘On the approval of the regulation on the Procedure for Establishing the List of Lone Elderly and Disabled persons in Need of Care’ expanded the scope of social assistance, focusing on most vulnerable groups of people. On one hand, the above-mentioned reforms were designed to better target poverty-stricken areas by establishing a centralised control over the policy implementation on providing equal access to social security. On another hand, those reforms established a new culture in government which is a categorisation of people living based on their social well-being (Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan, 2021). In a later stage of the reformatory agenda of Uzbekistan, we can observe the initiation of the creation of many other categories such as Yoshlar Daftari(Youths’ Notebook)- a database of unemployed youth, Ayollar Daftari (Women’s Notebook)- database on identifying, eliminating and monitoring the problems of unemployed women who have the need and desire for social, economic, legal, psychological support, knowledge and vocational training; Temir Daftar (Iron Notebook)- a database for registering, identifying, eliminating, and monitoring the problems of families with difficult social and living conditions.

One of our respondents who falls under the category of women living under poor economic conditions from rural Bukhara claims that she was listed to one of the mentioned registers. However, she is not very much aware of the exact type of register where she was listed by her mahalla representative (formal institution, a type of residential community association, subsidised and funded by state and informal contributions of mahalla residents). In 2020 she was promised by the mahalla to be provided with a sewing machine for free. According to our respondent, she was expecting the promise to be kept and accordingly she planned to establish a mini sewing business at home. However, our respondent never received any sewing machine, instead her mahalla offered our respondent a time cash payment of 500,000 sums equivalent to 45 USD. Our respondent refused the offer and conducted her own little investigation. It turns out that sewing machines arrived at her mahalla and were distributed to some family members, close friends and two other ladies who offered 100 USD bribe to the local mahalla representative. Then our respondent shared that she lost hope in the local government representatives and local khokim yordamchisi who was in charge of implementation of the state programmes on poverty eradication directly in the district.

However, another respondent from the neighbouring district with the previously mentioned respondent, had a very positive experience in the beginning of reforms. Our second respondent had a big land in his neighbourhood which he used for producing vegetables to supply the local market demands. In 2019 he had a chance to receive almost half a million USD loan with a very low interest rate to grow tomatoes and cucumbers for export purposes. Considering the fact that our respondent had no experience in loan taking and managing a business on such a large scale, he failed to meet the requirements of the loan and almost went bankrupt. Later on, he changed his business plan from producing tomatoes to producing strawberries. The bank providing the loan had no problems with such a change in the business plan. Our respondent shares that the bank only cares about the loan interest to be paid on time no matter what. Currently, our respondent is still paying his loan which is in foreign currency, USD, and has not been making any profit so far. However, he claims that this loan enabled him to upgrade his living conditions to a certain extent and to explore new business dimensions.

Continued Reform and Sustainable Development? (2020–2025)

As of the 2020s, the government’s approach to poverty eradication was increasingly focused on the long term. That fact is visible from various policy initiations, for example, Presidential Decree No. PP-436 validating the Program on the transition to a “green” economy and ensuring “green” growth in the Republic of Uzbekistan until 2030. Legal measures encouraged the growth of the digital economy and entrepreneurship, especially in underdeveloped areas. This included support for start-ups and small-scale businesses such as sewing, cooking, farming and poultry farming which provided new job opportunities, particularly for youth and women. Nonetheless, continued reforms focused on enhancing access to healthcare and education through the expansion of public-private partnerships and increasing government funding in these sectors. These sectors were viewed as essential to breaking the cycle of poverty, as they directly contribute to human capital development. Indeed, the continued reformatory agenda of Uzbekistan in poverty reduction and social protection in 2020-2025 is better observable in two specific sectors: private business and education.

Most of our respondents claim that they started truly feeling the reforms after the ‘Mahallabay’ system of public service initiation. This system is initiated by the Cabinet of Ministers and considers the penetration of state reforms in each mahalla. Almost all local public servants from all public agencies started travelling within their assigned districts and visiting all mahallas to study the social issues and economic struggles. As a result, many individuals were registered in different registry ‘Notebooks’ for further assistance. Indeed, after analyzing the rate of poverty in rural areas, local authorities started enforcing the ‘chicken economy’ introduced by President Mirziyoyev earlier in 2017. During Mirziyoyev’s visit to Karakalpakstan on January 21, the President recommended to local people living in rural areas to engage in poultry farming in order to improve the living conditions of low-income families, he said: “Across our republic, especially in Karakalpakstan, every household living in the village is obliged to feed 100 chickens. 100 chickens produce at least 50 eggs a day. If you eat 10 of them yourself and sell 40 eggs every day, you will not be a low-income family. This is the stability of our tomorrow’s economy. “said Shavkat Mirziyoyev (BBC, 2017).

To understand the impact of reforms in rural areas, in July 2024 we organized a comparative study of two mahallas. One mahalla had many people who received micro-low loans through khokim yordamchilari, and the second mahalla had zero people who received a loan for chicken, but instead, the second mahalla people had many micro-loans for mini-truck vehicles and welding shops. Many people from the first mahalla failed to pay back their debts to banks because their chickens died because of poor fencing conditions and sickness. However, there were some successful cases of chicken farming, which required some additional private investment from loan takers. The second mahalla could be framed as a success case because except for one person all people who used the micro-credits provided by the state for poverty eradication could upgrade their living standards. Our preliminary analyses on why the second mahalla had a successful experience of implementation of recent reforms are linked with the competence of khokim yordamchisi who knows the local people’s skills and social settings and knows how to filter the reforms and provides access to local people only to the reforms with higher chances of social benefit rather than desperately using all the financial opportunities provided by the central government.

As concluding remarks, Uzbekistan’s legislative approach to poverty eradication evolved from reactive and minimal interventions in the early years of independence (1991–2000) to a more comprehensive, multi-faceted approach in the 2000s and 2010s. In the 2020s, the focus shifted toward long-term sustainable development, incorporating social, economic, and environmental factors into the poverty reduction strategy. However, challenges remain, including income inequality, rural poverty, and the need for more effective targeting of welfare programs.

Ongoing reforms, bolstered by international cooperation and a more open approach to market economy principles, aim to reduce poverty and inequality while promoting inclusive growth. The challenge for Uzbekistan in the coming years will be to implement these legal measures effectively and ensure that the benefits of economic growth reach all segments of society.

Reference list:

An assessment of the social protection system in Uzbekistan Based on the Core Diagnostic instrument (CODI).  (2020). ILO, UNICEF, and the World Bank. https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@europe/@ro-geneva/@sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_760153.pdf

Azizur Rahman Khan, “The Transition to a Market Economy in Agriculture,” in Keith Griffin, ed., Social Policy and Economic Transformation in Uzbekistan, Geneva: ILO, 1996.

Decision of the cabinet of Ministers #637 dated from 12 October 2021 ‘On Approving the Regulation on the Procedure for Allocating Unsecured Loans for the Construction of Additional Housing in the Individual Households of Children of Families Included in the “Iron Notebook” and “Women’s Notebook ” and Newly Married Young People Entered in the “Youth Notebook”’. https://lex.uz/docs/-5676240

Decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan from 5 April 2018 ‘On the approval of the regulation on the Procedure for Establishing the List of Lone Elderly and Disabled persons in Need of Care’ https://lex.uz/docs/-4870034

Decree of the President of Uzbekistan No. PP-436 dated 2 December 2022 on ‘ Validating the Program on the Transition to a ‘Green’ Economy and Ensuring ‘Green’ Growth in the Republic of Uzbekistan until 2030’. Available at https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/uzb219338.pdf

International Monetary Fund. (2005). Republic of Uzbekistan: Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. IMF Staff Country Reports, 05(160), i. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781451839814.002

“Karimov rules with an iron fist.” (2005, May 16). The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/17/theeditorpressreview

Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “About non-bank credit institutions and microfinancial activities.” From September 20, 2006. https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=139689

LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN of September 20, 2006 No. ZRU-53 https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=13812

Melnikovová, L., & Havrland, B. (2016). State Ownership of Land in Uzbekistan – an Impediment to Further Agricultural Growth? Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica, 49(1–4), 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1515/ats-2016-0001

Mirziyoyevning 100 kuni: “Tovuq iqtisodi” Oʻzbekistonni qayerga olib boradi?”. (2017, March 21). BBC News O’zbek. https://www.bbc.com/uzbek/lotin-39341993

Sabi, M. (2013). Microfinance institution activities in Central Asia: a case study of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Post-Communist Economies, 25(2), 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631377.2013.787757