by Julita Slipkauskaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

I am Julita Slipkauskaitė. I am an assistant at the Faculty of Philosophy and a representative of Vilnius University in the MOCCA project. My research interests range from Late Medieval philosophy and the philosophy of history to conspiracy theories. It was the latter that led me to the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in early March 2024. Looking back, I can confidently say that this experience marked an excellent start to my academic career.

I arrived in Bishkek in early March and stayed until early May. I was warmly greeted by the newly appointed Director of the Academy Dr. Kate E Walker and Project and Training specialist Dr. Almakan Orozobekova at the OSCE Academy.

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Julita is in Bishkek

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My first glimpse of Bishkek: OSCE’s promotion on one of the central streets.

I came to Bishkek with a research project in mind, suggested by my colleague and mentor on this project prof. Ainė Ramonaitė. Our initial aim was to explore a hypothesis proposed by Sinan Alper, which claims that people living in countries with higher levels of corruption are more prone to conspiracy ideation. Subsequently, we planned to examine the prevailing conspiracy theories and how their spread has evolved since the Covid-19 pandemic.

As we delved deeper into the literature and complexities of this topic, the connection between conspiratorial thinking and corruption became increasingly intriguing. On the one hand, the correlation between the two phenomena was clear; on the other hand, almost no causal explanation for this link has been proposed. Recognising this gap in the literature, we set out to address it. Unfortunately, the topic turned out to be too sensitive and practically unattainable for a foreigner. By the time our secondments ended, we had made a significant progress on the theoretical aspects of the research and had developed the research design. During our final presentation at the OSCE Academy we explained the empirical and conceptual connections between the two phenomena. However, the true challenge – conducting a comparative analysis between Lithuanians and Kyrgyz people – remains for future research.

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Julita is in Bishkek

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At the OSCE Academy

Despite the research challenges, Kyrgyzstan was an exciting country to experience. From its nature, landscape and traditional culture to the dynamics of its major cities, every corner of the country amazed me. However, the highlight of my experience was meeting students and listening to their stories. Everyone I encountered in Kyrgyzstan – whether at the OSCE Academy, the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan, or Ala-Too International University, as well as young people I randomly met in the city – exhibited resilience, creativity, and a strong awareness of their role in shaping their country’s present and future. I was particularly impressed by their individual initiative to practice the Kyrgyz language vigorously and act as ambassadors of their country and culture. Finally, coming from a small country, I was surprised to find that frequently locals had some connection to Lithuania or knew a great deal about it. This always served as a great conversation starter.

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OSCE Academy students celebrate Nowruz, the Persian New Year, with performances.

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Julita is in Bishkek

Members of the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan.

I would like to thank the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project and the OSCE Academy in Bishkek for a secondment in Kyrgyzstan, which helped me set a foot in my field and deepen my understanding of Central Asia.

by Tolibjon Mustafoev, PhD candidate at Lund University 

For the last few decades, Uzbekistan has been a popular research destination for many scholars studying authoritarian regimes. Indeed, the first president of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov, had been in power from the first days of independence in 1991 until September 2016. Karimov was known for his policies on closed economy, high bureaucracy, centralised control over business climate and civil society, strong state security and brutal foreign politics. As the guardian mentioned, Karimov ‘ruled with the iron feast’ for twenty-five years. But then when Mirziyoyev took the lead, the Uzbek nation experienced some democratic shifts in many areas including the economy (ex. currency exchange became liberal and the Central Bank’s authority space for dictating the rules in the banking sector was shrunk)), public services (initiation of Single Window State Service Center), taxation and business. The most important changes occurred after the nationwide referendum for the new version of the constitution of Uzbekistan on 30 April 2023. The new constitution emphasizes that Uzbekistan is a social state and that it needs to move towards the establishment of a welfare state and provide equal access to social security for citizens. However, Uzbek authorities had been preparing for new constitutional amendments long before their adoption. Starting from 2021 citizens were categorized into different segments based on their economic conditions by taking into account the gender and age dimensions. As a result, unemployed youth were categorised as ‘ununited youth’ and a special register named ‘Youth Notebook’ was created, unemployed and economically disadvantaged women were registered in so-called ‘Iron Notebooks’. Each category of citizens falls under special state programmes that provide access to low-interest loans, free equipment to start mini-scale businesses and many more.

Hence, in the case of Uzbekistan, we can witness how a state shifted its focus from state security to social development in a matter of less than five years. In this blog post, I try to briefly provide analyses of policy developments directed at establishing a welfare state and eradicating poverty in Uzbekistan. My motivation to write this blog post appeared during my secondment from the MOCCA project to Uzbekistan in 2024. During the secondment period, I collaborated with two professors from the University of Zurich, Peter Finke and Meltem Sancak and three of us organised joined fieldwork in rural areas of Uzbekistan to collect data on the implementation of poverty reduction policies and state programmes in real-life.  During the data collection process, we interviewed representatives of khokimlar (mayors), specifically, khokim yordamchilari (assistants to khokimlar), citizens who participated in state programmes for eradicating poverty and citizens who decided not to be engaged with state programmes regardless of their harsh economic conditions and poor living standards. Such a diversity of respondents helped us to understand the ongoing reformatory agenda in Uzbekistan from many perspectives such as from the top-down (during the interviews with khokim yordamchilari) and from the bottom-up (vulnerable citizens). This blog post mainly focuses on policy analyses by referring to only some of the fieldwork data, whereas this topic is planned to be covered by a larger research scope for further publication as an article.

To start with, historically, Uzbekistan’s legislative efforts to eradicate poverty from its Independence Day on 31st August 1991 to 2025 can be analyzed by looking at key reforms, policies, and actions undertaken by the government to address economic disparities, social inequalities, and poverty alleviation during that period. In this blog post, I analyze policy developments on eradicating poverty and establishing social welfare in Uzbekistan by looking into four different periods and by linking the latest reformatory agendas to the cases and experiences of private persons who participated in our fieldwork as respondents:

Transition Period and Early Reforms (1991–2000)

When Uzbekistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union, its citizens and institutions experienced economic instability, a collapse of state subsidies, and high inflation. Due to the fact that Uzbekistan inherited a highly centralized and inefficient economy, the legal and institutional framework needed to be restructured to address poverty, but legislative actions during this period were limited, focusing primarily on maintaining state control and stabilizing the economy. A year after its independence, the Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted and it enshrined fundamental human rights, including the right to work and access to social security. Although the Constitution recognized social welfare as an important goal, the legal structure for addressing poverty was not fully developed at this stage. Although some social security nets such as child benefits and pensions were introduced, they were limited in scope and lacked effectiveness due to economic constraints. During this period, from an economic perspective, the Government of Uzbekistan mostly concentrated its focus on reforms to Land Law which aimed at the redistribution of land to improve agricultural productivity and reduce rural poverty (Melnikovová, 2016). However, new land policies remained a challenging task to be implemented due to a shortage of local state funds and poor infrastructure. Moreover, this period included a mass privatization of state enterprises which resulted in uneven distribution of wealth and assets among citizens (Rakhman Khan, 1996).

Strengthening Social Programs and Economic Development (2000–2010)

The 2000s marked a period of gradual economic growth in Uzbekistan, accompanied by a stronger emphasis on poverty alleviation through targeted social policies. The government began to focus more systematically on addressing poverty through legal reforms and institutional adjustments. After a series of consultations with international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, the government of Uzbekistan adopted a Poverty Reduction Strategy in 2005 aimed at increasing economic growth, diversifying the economy, and reducing regional and social disparities (IMF, 2005). One of the interesting facts about the strategy is that it did not consider employment as a guarantee against poverty, which is not the case for how the current government of Uzbekistan frames the concept of employment which I reflect later in the text. This entire strategy was addressed and evaluated by the International Monetary Fund in its report from 2015. In its report, the IMF highlighted the possibility of accelerating economic growth only in the case of sustained macroeconomic stability (2005). Moreover, the IMF report highlights the necessity for the improvement of the credit policy through 2005 by expansion of the incidence of market mechanisms of the distribution of credit resources and creation of a full-scale money market and liberalization of commercial banks’ interest rates. Uzbekistan reflected on some of the recommendations of the IMF on social programmes and rural area development recommendation. Also, a new legislation ‘Law on Microcredit Institutions’ adopted on September 20, 2006, facilitated access to financial resources for small-scale entrepreneurs, particularly in rural areas. Microfinance institutions became an important tool for poverty alleviation, enabling small businesses and farmers to invest in income-generating activities. However, microfinance organizations attracted a large number of shareholders and private investment creating financial challenges for the banking sector of Uzbekistan. Moreover, the absence of intensive competition in the market of microfinance organizations caused a cross-indebtedness among the population in Uzbekistan (Sabi, 2013).

Comprehensive Reforms and International Cooperation (2010–2020)

The policies on the economy became less liberal in the early 2010s due to the introduction of heavy state control over private credit organizations creating bureaucratic challenges for private credit unions to keep providing financial services to people in rural areas. Adoption of the decision of the Chairman of the Central Bank of Uzbekistan  ‘On the Approval of the Regulation on Requirements for the Credit Policy of Credit Associations’ from 24 March 2011 ceased the further development of credit unions in the state.  Then, almost a decade after the IMF 2005 report on the Poverty Reduction Strategy, Uzbekistan puts forward the agenda for mass reform of the banking sector which becomes the first big step towards liberalizing the economy. That step was taken under the rule of new president Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who came to power in 2016. His administration prioritised a shift towards more inclusive economic growth, deeper legal reforms, and engagement with international organizations on poverty reduction.

 During the first years of new leadership, Uzbekistan launched its National Development Strategy for 2017-2021, which prioritized the reduction of poverty, improving living standards, creating jobs, and ensuring social inclusion. The strategy included legal reforms aimed at enhancing the welfare system, education, and healthcare. In addition, the decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan from 5 April 2018 ‘On the approval of the regulation on the Procedure for Establishing the List of Lone Elderly and Disabled persons in Need of Care’ expanded the scope of social assistance, focusing on most vulnerable groups of people. On one hand, the above-mentioned reforms were designed to better target poverty-stricken areas by establishing a centralised control over the policy implementation on providing equal access to social security. On another hand, those reforms established a new culture in government which is a categorisation of people living based on their social well-being (Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan, 2021). In a later stage of the reformatory agenda of Uzbekistan, we can observe the initiation of the creation of many other categories such as Yoshlar Daftari(Youths’ Notebook)- a database of unemployed youth, Ayollar Daftari (Women’s Notebook)- database on identifying, eliminating and monitoring the problems of unemployed women who have the need and desire for social, economic, legal, psychological support, knowledge and vocational training; Temir Daftar (Iron Notebook)- a database for registering, identifying, eliminating, and monitoring the problems of families with difficult social and living conditions.

One of our respondents who falls under the category of women living under poor economic conditions from rural Bukhara claims that she was listed to one of the mentioned registers. However, she is not very much aware of the exact type of register where she was listed by her mahalla representative (formal institution, a type of residential community association, subsidised and funded by state and informal contributions of mahalla residents). In 2020 she was promised by the mahalla to be provided with a sewing machine for free. According to our respondent, she was expecting the promise to be kept and accordingly she planned to establish a mini sewing business at home. However, our respondent never received any sewing machine, instead her mahalla offered our respondent a time cash payment of 500,000 sums equivalent to 45 USD. Our respondent refused the offer and conducted her own little investigation. It turns out that sewing machines arrived at her mahalla and were distributed to some family members, close friends and two other ladies who offered 100 USD bribe to the local mahalla representative. Then our respondent shared that she lost hope in the local government representatives and local khokim yordamchisi who was in charge of implementation of the state programmes on poverty eradication directly in the district.

However, another respondent from the neighbouring district with the previously mentioned respondent, had a very positive experience in the beginning of reforms. Our second respondent had a big land in his neighbourhood which he used for producing vegetables to supply the local market demands. In 2019 he had a chance to receive almost half a million USD loan with a very low interest rate to grow tomatoes and cucumbers for export purposes. Considering the fact that our respondent had no experience in loan taking and managing a business on such a large scale, he failed to meet the requirements of the loan and almost went bankrupt. Later on, he changed his business plan from producing tomatoes to producing strawberries. The bank providing the loan had no problems with such a change in the business plan. Our respondent shares that the bank only cares about the loan interest to be paid on time no matter what. Currently, our respondent is still paying his loan which is in foreign currency, USD, and has not been making any profit so far. However, he claims that this loan enabled him to upgrade his living conditions to a certain extent and to explore new business dimensions.

Continued Reform and Sustainable Development? (2020–2025)

As of the 2020s, the government’s approach to poverty eradication was increasingly focused on the long term. That fact is visible from various policy initiations, for example, Presidential Decree No. PP-436 validating the Program on the transition to a “green” economy and ensuring “green” growth in the Republic of Uzbekistan until 2030. Legal measures encouraged the growth of the digital economy and entrepreneurship, especially in underdeveloped areas. This included support for start-ups and small-scale businesses such as sewing, cooking, farming and poultry farming which provided new job opportunities, particularly for youth and women. Nonetheless, continued reforms focused on enhancing access to healthcare and education through the expansion of public-private partnerships and increasing government funding in these sectors. These sectors were viewed as essential to breaking the cycle of poverty, as they directly contribute to human capital development. Indeed, the continued reformatory agenda of Uzbekistan in poverty reduction and social protection in 2020-2025 is better observable in two specific sectors: private business and education.

Most of our respondents claim that they started truly feeling the reforms after the ‘Mahallabay’ system of public service initiation. This system is initiated by the Cabinet of Ministers and considers the penetration of state reforms in each mahalla. Almost all local public servants from all public agencies started travelling within their assigned districts and visiting all mahallas to study the social issues and economic struggles. As a result, many individuals were registered in different registry ‘Notebooks’ for further assistance. Indeed, after analyzing the rate of poverty in rural areas, local authorities started enforcing the ‘chicken economy’ introduced by President Mirziyoyev earlier in 2017. During Mirziyoyev’s visit to Karakalpakstan on January 21, the President recommended to local people living in rural areas to engage in poultry farming in order to improve the living conditions of low-income families, he said: “Across our republic, especially in Karakalpakstan, every household living in the village is obliged to feed 100 chickens. 100 chickens produce at least 50 eggs a day. If you eat 10 of them yourself and sell 40 eggs every day, you will not be a low-income family. This is the stability of our tomorrow’s economy. “said Shavkat Mirziyoyev (BBC, 2017).

To understand the impact of reforms in rural areas, in July 2024 we organized a comparative study of two mahallas. One mahalla had many people who received micro-low loans through khokim yordamchilari, and the second mahalla had zero people who received a loan for chicken, but instead, the second mahalla people had many micro-loans for mini-truck vehicles and welding shops. Many people from the first mahalla failed to pay back their debts to banks because their chickens died because of poor fencing conditions and sickness. However, there were some successful cases of chicken farming, which required some additional private investment from loan takers. The second mahalla could be framed as a success case because except for one person all people who used the micro-credits provided by the state for poverty eradication could upgrade their living standards. Our preliminary analyses on why the second mahalla had a successful experience of implementation of recent reforms are linked with the competence of khokim yordamchisi who knows the local people’s skills and social settings and knows how to filter the reforms and provides access to local people only to the reforms with higher chances of social benefit rather than desperately using all the financial opportunities provided by the central government.

As concluding remarks, Uzbekistan’s legislative approach to poverty eradication evolved from reactive and minimal interventions in the early years of independence (1991–2000) to a more comprehensive, multi-faceted approach in the 2000s and 2010s. In the 2020s, the focus shifted toward long-term sustainable development, incorporating social, economic, and environmental factors into the poverty reduction strategy. However, challenges remain, including income inequality, rural poverty, and the need for more effective targeting of welfare programs.

Ongoing reforms, bolstered by international cooperation and a more open approach to market economy principles, aim to reduce poverty and inequality while promoting inclusive growth. The challenge for Uzbekistan in the coming years will be to implement these legal measures effectively and ensure that the benefits of economic growth reach all segments of society.

Reference list:

An assessment of the social protection system in Uzbekistan Based on the Core Diagnostic instrument (CODI).  (2020). ILO, UNICEF, and the World Bank. https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@europe/@ro-geneva/@sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_760153.pdf

Azizur Rahman Khan, “The Transition to a Market Economy in Agriculture,” in Keith Griffin, ed., Social Policy and Economic Transformation in Uzbekistan, Geneva: ILO, 1996.

Decision of the cabinet of Ministers #637 dated from 12 October 2021 ‘On Approving the Regulation on the Procedure for Allocating Unsecured Loans for the Construction of Additional Housing in the Individual Households of Children of Families Included in the “Iron Notebook” and “Women’s Notebook ” and Newly Married Young People Entered in the “Youth Notebook”’. https://lex.uz/docs/-5676240

Decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan from 5 April 2018 ‘On the approval of the regulation on the Procedure for Establishing the List of Lone Elderly and Disabled persons in Need of Care’ https://lex.uz/docs/-4870034

Decree of the President of Uzbekistan No. PP-436 dated 2 December 2022 on ‘ Validating the Program on the Transition to a ‘Green’ Economy and Ensuring ‘Green’ Growth in the Republic of Uzbekistan until 2030’. Available at https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/uzb219338.pdf

International Monetary Fund. (2005). Republic of Uzbekistan: Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. IMF Staff Country Reports, 05(160), i. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781451839814.002

“Karimov rules with an iron fist.” (2005, May 16). The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/17/theeditorpressreview

Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “About non-bank credit institutions and microfinancial activities.” From September 20, 2006. https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=139689

LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN of September 20, 2006 No. ZRU-53 https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=13812

Melnikovová, L., & Havrland, B. (2016). State Ownership of Land in Uzbekistan – an Impediment to Further Agricultural Growth? Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica, 49(1–4), 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1515/ats-2016-0001

Mirziyoyevning 100 kuni: “Tovuq iqtisodi” Oʻzbekistonni qayerga olib boradi?”. (2017, March 21). BBC News O’zbek. https://www.bbc.com/uzbek/lotin-39341993

Sabi, M. (2013). Microfinance institution activities in Central Asia: a case study of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Post-Communist Economies, 25(2), 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631377.2013.787757

by Büşra Eylem AKTAŞ, Assistant Professor at Istanbul Medipol University

The time I spent in Prague as part of the MOCCA project was not only an academic opportunity but also allowed for a deeper development of our research. I arrived in Prague on October 4th. Initially, I stayed in a small, warm, and cozy guesthouse near the airport. However, the next day, I moved to the city center to find a more suitable living space. Upon my arrival, I noticed that most people in Prague spoke English quite comfortably, which was a relief. The city quickly captivated me with its excellent food and shopping options.

When I stepped onto the campus of Charles University, I was greeted by a modern building. The library in the campus’s Social Sciences Institute had excellent resources compared to other university libraries. However, the most significant benefit was the academic community I encountered. Conversations with students and faculty contributed greatly to the development of our research. In particular, Anna, an academic researcher involved in the project, was incredibly helpful during my time there. Her friendly and warm approach made me feel confident that she was always ready to assist.

This secondment process in Prague was productive not only in terms of academic growth but also for my professional development. The workshop presentations played a significant role in advancing the project’s ideas. After the presentations, we had the opportunity to exchange ideas with other researchers about different projects. Additionally, the academic connections I made on campus were invaluable in establishing potential collaborations. These connections offer significant opportunities, not only for the current project but also for long-term progress in my research field.

In this project, our main objective is to experimentally test the changes in individuals’ likelihood of engaging in corruption when descriptive norms change. The first study examines the potential differences in individuals’ likelihood of engaging in corruption in different work environments when the leader’s approach to corruption and the descriptive and injunctive norms in the environment are manipulated. The second study tests the question of how changes in descriptive norms (such as more or fewer people engaging in corruption or no one engaging in corruption) will affect an individual’s likelihood of attempting to win in a game by offering a bribe (and making a profit by accepting the bribe). This will allow us to observe the role of norms in normalizing corruption in the eyes of others, as well as to observe how likely individuals are to become prone to corruption in a hypothetical environment.

Following the workshop, Taylan and Burak were assigned the task of gathering pilot data for the Lund University study, and the research process will expand further. My contributions to the MOCCA project and the progress I made seem to be accelerating thanks to the connections I established with people I met during this experience. This has been an important milestone in my academic career, and the relationships I built in Prague will only strengthen it further.

The time spent with Burak and Taylan also allowed me to explore the cultural richness of Prague. We visited historical landmarks like the Charles Bridge, the National Museum,

Astronomical Clock, and the Cathedral. These experiences helped me better understand the city and made my time there more productive. While exploring, we gained new perspectives and developed ideas that would deepen our work on the project.

Another notable observation I had about Prague was how delicious the local cuisine was. This was especially surprising to me!

Vegan food is quite delicious, affordable, and accessible! Prague offered a wonderful experience in this regard. I’m not vegan, but I often choose to consume vegan products.

Also, in my opinion, Prague’s most delicious dessert is vetrnik! Be sure not to leave without trying vetrnik at Cafe Slavia – it’s an experience you shouldn’t miss!

My name is Gurbanmyrat Ovezmyradov, and I am Expert and Scientific Secretary of the of “Tebigy Kuwwat” Public Association Enterprise in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. From June to August in 2024, I spent two months at Medipol University in Istanbul, Türkiye within the MOCCA secondment.

As part of the project, which is aimed at conducting research on the fight against corruption in Central Asia, I thought it would be appropriate to visit this country. For studies in the Asian region, educational and research institutions in Türkiye are among the most suitable places. Not least due to the fact that the country is located on the border of Asia and Europe and has many connections with different parts of the world.

During my secondment at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of Medipol University, I was given substantial attention and great support. This included searching for relevant materials, scientific and other literature. During the secondment, there were working meetings with professors of this faculty, as well as with employees and postgraduate students in related fields from other faculties. There were also conversations with Turkmen students studying at this university. I also had the opportunity to speak with a presentation at an event organized by local colleagues.

At Medipol University, I received great assistance from Dr. Prof. Gökhan Malkoç and Dr. Hatice Deniz Genç. Substantial support was also provided by Dr. Erhan Dogan from Marmara University.

For my research, I chose a topic related to the legislation of Turkmenistan. This topic is about anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan: current status and development prospect. It includes the study of positive experience of countries in combating corruption. During the secondment, there was an exchange of data, scientific views and approaches in this and other related areas of ​​study. It contributed to an understanding of the real problems in Central Asian and neighboring countries, and what is being done in the direction of anti-corruption activities in the Asian countries During the study of problems in the field of corruption at Medipol University, I had the opportunity to use their library. I also found out about a wide range of legislative anti-corruption measures in various forms and cases through online academic databases. The work will contribute to the preparation of recommendations for improving the relevant national legislation. Also, the results of this research help me identify institutional mechanisms that ensure practical measures in the direction of improving transparency. With the help of the obtained materials, I was able to outline the structure of the planned work and carry out other relevant preparations.

The preliminary study relates to the analysis of the anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan. Currently, corruption in the country present risks to national security and the well-being of the population. Therefore, the study of anti-corruption issues is relevant. In this regard, the main objectives of the research are to analyze country’s policy in this area (the institutional and legislative framework) and develop proposals to improve the effectiveness of combating corruption. The relevant studies that have been initiated in the field of combating corruption concern the organization of different measures in various Asian countries.

Along with these studies, I held several meetings and visited various government, cultural, historical, educational and other places in Türkiye as the country is very interesting in this regard, being rich in traditions and resources. At the same time, during my visits to the cities of Ankara and Alanya, I was able to meet with my colleagues from Ankara University and Alaaddin Keykubat University. There was a fruitful exchange of knowledge and opinions. With the help of those accompanying me, I was able to see important government facilities and institutions in Ankara and Alanya, learning a lot about the state structure and the work of various agencies. Ankara is the capital of Türkiye, and Alanya was the residence of the rulers of the Seljuk State (Alanya Fortress). I also had the chance to visit Edirne, which is known for its rich history. It was one of the centers of the Ottoman state, the place of residence of members of the ruling elite. This city located in the European part of Türkiye, right on the border with Greece and Bulgaria, experienced some European influences and has a lot of visitors from other countries.

During visits to museums and historical places, I found interesting information about the public affairs and the structure of administration, including the practices of preventing abuses in the government and law enforcement in the Ottoman Empire. For example, during a visit to the Fatih Sultan Museum, I learned about an interesting practice by the ruler: he regularly held a council, which gathered elders, scholars and religious leaders who had earned respect among the rulers and the people, and allowed them to freely speak out about problematic aspects in the state (including the issues of government bodies and corruption) and ways to solve them.

In conclusion, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the MOCCA team at Lund University and colleagues from universities in Türkiye, who provided great assistance in organizing the secondment and conducting the research.

Меня зовут Гурбанмырат Овезмырадов. Я являюсь Экспертом и Ученым секретарем Предприятия общественного объединения «Тебиги Кувват» в Ашхабаде, Туркменистан, имею степень доктора в технических науках. В июне – августе 2024 года я провел 2 месяца в Университете Медипол в Стамбуле, Турция в рамках стажировки MOCCA.

В рамках проекта MOCCA, который направлен на проведение исследований по борьбе с коррупцией в Центральной Азии и я посчитал, что будет целесообразным посетить эту страну. Для указанных исследований в азиатском регионе учебные и научные учреждения в Турции являются одними из наиболее подходящих мест. В том числе в связи с тем, что эта страна расположена на границе Азии и Европы и её много связывает с Старым светом. В ходе этой стажировки на Faculty of Humanities andSocial sciences of Мedipol University мне было уделено достаточное внимание и оказана большая поддержка. В том числе это касалось поиска соответствующего моей теме материала, научной и другой литературы.  В ходе стажировки состоялись рабочие встречи с преподавателями этого факультета, а также с работниками и аспирантами из смежных специальностей из других факультетов. Также имели место общения с туркменскими студентами, которые учатся в этом университете. Также мне довелось выступить в ходе организованного местными коллегами мероприятия с презентацией. В Медипол Университете мне оказали большую помощь Dr. Prof. Gökhan Malkoç and Dr. Hatice Deniz Genç. Также поддержка была оказана со стороны Dr. Erhan Dogan из Мармара Университета. В процессе стажировки между нами имел место обмен данными, научными взглядами и подходами в этой исследуемой области и в других смежных областях. Это способствовало пониманию реальных проблем в наших и соседних странах и что делается в направлении антикоррупционной деятельности в наших и других азиатских странах.

Для исследований мной была выбрана тема, связанная с законодательством Туркменистана. Эта тема «Антикоррупционное законодательство Туркменистана: современное состояние и перспективы развития» включает изучения положительного опыта стран по борьбе с коррупцией. В ходе исследования проблем в сфере коррупции в Мedipol University у меня была возможность воспользоваться их библиотекой. Мне также представилась возможность через онлайн-базы академических данных ознакомиться с большим спектром законодательных антикоррупционных мер в различных формах и размерах. Проведенные работы будут способствовать подготовке рекомендации по совершенствованию национального законодательства по борьбе с коррупцией. Также результаты этих исследований помогут мне выявить институциональные механизмы, обеспечивающие практические меры в этом направлении. С помощью полученных материалов мне удалось подготовить структуру намечаемой работы и провести другие соответствующие действия. Накопленный материал является основой для моей второй командировки в следующем году.

Проведенные исследования относятся к анализу антикоррупционного законодательства Туркменистана. В настоящее время в стране коррупция представляет угрозу национальной безопасности, благополучия населения. Руководством Туркменистана осуществляются различные меры по противодействию коррупции, однако этого пока недостаточно. Поэтому изучение антикоррупционных вопросов является актуальным. В связи с этим среди основных задач проводимого мной исследования будет являться анализ политики Туркменистана в этом направлении, анализ институциональных и законодательных основ для противодействия коррупции и выработка предложений по повышению эффективности противодействия коррупции. Начатые соответствующие исследования в области борьбы с коррупцией затрагивают организацию этих мер в различных азиатских странах и в нашей стране. В конце исследовательской работы планируется подготовить рекомендации по совершенствованию антикоррупционного законодательства.

Наряду с этими исследованиями мной проводились встречи, посещения различных властных, культурных, исторических, образовательных и других разных мест Турции. Так как эта страна очень интересна в этом отношении, богата традициями, объектами и ресурсами. При этом в ходе посещения городов Анкара и Аланья мне удалось встретиться с моими коллегами из Анкара Университета и Университета имени Аллаэтдина Кейкубат. Там состоялись плодотворный обмен знаниями и мнениями. С помощью сопровождавших меня лиц удалось увидеть важные государственные объекты и институты в Анкаре и Аланья, узнать много о государственном устройстве и работе правоохранительных органов. Анкара является столицей Турции, а в Аланья располагалась резиденция правителей Сельджукского государства (Крепость «Аланья»).   Также мне довелось побывать в Эдирне, которая известна своей богатой историей, являлась одним из центров Османского государства, местом правления и обитания членов турецкой правящей верхушки. Этот город располагается в Европейской части Турции, уже на самой границе с Грецией и Болгарией. Поэтому здесь много перенятого от европейского и очень много приезжих из этих и других стран Европы. В ходе посещений там музеев и исторических мест удалось получить интересную информацию о ведении государственных дел, структуре государственного управления, в том числе в сфере борьбы с злобоупотреблениями в властных и правоохранительных органах Османской империи. Для примера, в ходе посещения музея Фатих Султан Мухаммеда Второго узнал про интересную практику, которую использовал этот Правитель. Он регулярно устраивал Совет, на который собирал заслуживших уважение среди правителей и народа старейшин, мудрецов и религиозных лидеров и позволял им свободно высказывать о проблемных сторонах в Государстве и путях решения (в том числе о работе органов власти и коррупционных явлениях).

В заключении выражаю большую благодарность команде MOCCA в Лундском Университете и коллегам из турецких университетов, которые оказала значительную содействие в организации и реализации командировки, в проведении моих исследований (к Отчету прилагаются некоторые иллюстрационные материалы).

My name is Zarina Kadyrova, and I represent the Tajik State University of Commerce in MOCCA project. I would like to share my experience from my secondment, which took place from August 19 to October 17 at Lund University in Sweden and Charles University in Prague, alongside my colleague, Dr. Ismattulo Ismatulloev.

First and foremost, I want to emphasize the significant importance of obtaining a visa, purchasing plane tickets, and securing accommodation in a timely manner while preparing for the secondment. Although my colleague and I successfully obtained our visas and bought our plane tickets, we only began searching for accommodation in Lund and Prague a month prior to our departure. This approach proved to be less than ideal, as finding suitable accommodation that fit our budget for a short duration (one month) turned out to be quite challenging. Therefore, I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to Elmurod Sobirov, Tolibjon Mustafoev (Lund University), and Anna Jordanova (Charles University) for their invaluable assistance in helping us find accommodation during our short secondment in Sweden (Malmo, Lund) and the Czech Republic (Prague).

Many researchers are drawn to the opportunity to conduct research abroad to expand their knowledge, gain new insights, test scientific hypotheses, establish patterns, and make scientific generalizations. This experience offers not only the chance to conduct research in an international setting but also serves as a valuable means of professional development. It enables researchers to explore new methodologies, engage with the scientific literature of foreign scholars, enhance language skills, and immerse themselves in the history and culture of the host country. Thanks to the MOCCA project, we, the faculty members of TSUC, were afforded this unique opportunity, which was primarily aimed at our personal development and the advancement of research into international practices for developing effective anti-corruption strategies.

In secondment period, I engaged in discussions on the preliminary results of research examining the conditions for the emergence and development of corruption across various sectors of society. We explored the significance of an effective national anti-corruption strategy and the Asian model, characterized by a tolerant attitude towards corruption, often perceived as a relatively normal phenomenon due to cultural traditions and economic necessity. This exchange of ideas significantly advanced my research activities within the MOCCA project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to Chekroz Kilichova (Lund University) and Anna Jordanova for their swift resolution of organizational matters related to our stay at Lund University and Charles University. Thanks to them, I quickly received university pass, gained access to the libraries and electronic resources of both universities, and provided with essential information for navigating the campuses and the cities of Malmo, Lund, and Prague. I appreciated the conditions provided in the research offices at both universities. Additionally, I had the opportunity to work on my research in the university library. In Malmo, it was possible to use the city library.

Moreover, my colleague and I were fortunate to attend the dissertation defense of a PhD student supervised by Rustamjon Urinboyev. The organizational process and the defense itself were fundamentally different from the process at the TSUC dissertation council. It was fascinating to observe the PhD student confidently and decisively defend their research findings while engaging with the opponent and addressing their questions.

During our secondment at Charles University, my colleague and I had the opportunity to present to students in Anna Chordanova’s class on topics related to economics and entrepreneurship, while also introducing them to Tajikistan’s history and economy during the Soviet era, as well as its current context.

I would also like to share my impressions of the cities of Lund and Prague. Lund is home to the most significant southern Swedish cathedral and university. I resided in Malmo, which is only a 10-15 minute train ride from Lund. Almost all trains, regardless of their destination, stop in Lund. Lund is a vibrant student city and an educational and scientific hub in the province of Skane. It is also recognized as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in Europe, featuring dedicated lanes for cyclists. However, one must be cautious not to inadvertently venture onto the bike paths, as cyclists travel at high speeds, and inattentiveness can lead to accidents. Remarkably, half of the city’s residents commute by bicycle, while the number of cars has remained constant for the past decade—an admirable cycling culture indeed.

Describing Prague in just a few words is nearly impossible; it feels like stepping into a fairy tale. I lived in Malovanka (Prague 6), and it took only 15-20 minutes to walk to Charles Bridge and other attractions through charming, narrow streets lined with beautiful buildings. From the viewpoint, Prague appears as a fairy tale town laid out in the palm of your hand. Finding this viewpoint is straightforward—just follow the crowd of tourists. From there, you can admire the Old and New Town, St. Nicholas Church, the towers of the Church of Our Lady before Tyn, and the colorful rooftops of Prague. The viewpoint is situated on the walls of Prague Castle.

The Faculty of Social Sciences is situated on Jinonice, and I traveled there from Malovanka by bus, although had the option to take the metro. The transit pass I purchased for public transportation could be used on buses, the metro, and trams. Due to the faculty’s location on a small hill, the faculty library, with its bright and innovative design, is visible from a distance, making it impossible to miss the stop.

My secondment at Lund University and Charles University was an invaluable experience that significantly enriched my academic and professional journey. The opportunity to engage in meaningful research discussions, explore new methodologies, scientific literature and immerse myself in the vibrant cultures of Sweden (Malmo; Lund) and the Czech Republic (Prague) has greatly enhanced my understanding of international practices in developing effective anti-corruption strategies. I am particularly grateful for the support and assistance from my colleagues and the staff at both universities, which facilitated a smooth and productive stay in Europe.

My name is Yolbars Kepbanov. I am a representative of the Tebigi Kuwwat Public Association and I have a Doctorate in Law in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. From April to May 2024, I spent one month at Marmara University in Istanbul, Turkey, and from May to August 2024, three months at Charles University Prague, Czech Republic as part of the MOCCA project.

As part of the MOCCA project, which aims to conduct research on anti-corruption legislation in Central Asia, it seemed to me that it would be worthwhile to visit these two countries with different mentality. In my opinion, there could hardly be a better place for this purpose than these educational and research institutions. It is not the first time that I had a secondment at Marmara University and Charles University, where I have received great support and attention. First of all, this comprehensive assistance was in finding the necessary material, literature and meeting with relevant specialists.

I have chosen a scientific topic related to the anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan considering the best practices of the EU, which involves, among other things, studying the positive experience of the countries in the fight against corruption. This can help me to develop specific recommendations for improving our national anti-corruption legislation, to identify institutional mechanisms that provide specific measures in this direction. I was supported and assisted in every possible way by professors, students, staff at the Faculty of Social Sciences in Charles University and at the Political Science and International Relations Department in Marmara University. Together with local scholars, we actively exchanged academic opinions, data and definitions in order to understand what the problems in the fight against corruption really are.

I had a great opportunity to use libraries in Istanbul and Prague and online academic databases to research corruption issues. I learned a wide range of legal measures to fight corruption, with different types of corruption in all scales and forms, as well as different types of anti-corruption campaigns. This theoretical material helped me to develop the structure of my future work, to organize the collected material into relevant sections, which will the basis for my research and secondment in 2025.

My research concerns the analysis of anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan, because corruption currently remains one of the main challenges to development of the country. It can undermine the security and significantly limit the freedoms of citizens. Despite the adoption of preventive measures by the government, corruption still has a negative impact. In this regard, the study of the problems of combating corruption, primarily by means of legal instruments, is currently of utmost importance. The main objective of my research thus will be to analyze the relevant legislation.

Of course, in addition to research work, I also found time for a cultural program. Istanbul is the largest city of Turkey, the economic, historical and cultural center of the country. I was impressed by such historical and cultural monuments as Topkapi Palace, Aya Sofia and others. During my stay in Istanbul I managed to visit the resort city of Alanya, where I spent a wonderful time among palm trees and beaches.

The capital of the Czech Republic, Prague, where I spent most of my secondment, is a completely different environment. Prague is an old romantic city where one won’t get bored. It is a paradise for those who love culture, history and shopping. It provides all kinds of goods produced in different parts of the Czech Republic. Walking around the central part of the city, one can simultaneously enjoy the beauty of ancient buildings and buy unique souvenirs. In addition to Prague, I managed to visit Karlovy Vary, where there are many historical monuments, unusual buildings and most importantly a large number of mineral springs. All this impressed me very much.

Finally, I would like to express my great gratitude to the MOCCA team in Lund, who provided me with great support and assistance in my research and in the organization of the trip.

by Dr. Jogilė Ulinskaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

The secondment to Lund University was a great opportunity to develop and present my research ideas. I particularly appreciated the opportunity to meet interesting colleagues involved in the MOCCA project, researching very important and complex issues. I also had the opportunity to network with the Department of Sociology of Law, the department in which the MOCCA project is based. The friendly and welcoming environment and the spontaneous academic discussions made my stay in Lund very enjoyable.

Most importantly, it was an opportunity to present my research and reflect on its relevance for the post-socialist region as a whole. The post-communist transformation that took place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union was a complex process involving all spheres of society – political, economic, social and cultural. The economic downturn meant that many people had to think about how to make ends meet. Yet, at the same time, in a period of radical change, some of the most important questions that people had to deal with were what is valuable, what is success and how to achieve it. I argue that as people contemplated future prospects and assumed new roles in a context of uncertainty, they evaluated and justified their choices by drawing on different grammars of worth (Boltanski and Thévenot, 1999). In my work, I draw on Boltanski and Thévenot’s theory of justification to explain how people actively engage in social discourses to determine the legitimacy and value of their actions and choices in their professional lives.

In my research, I also ask whether different groups use different evaluation repertoires differently. In particular, I look at two different groups that have experienced the transformation from different starting points: small entrepreneurs and former industrial workers. During the Soviet period, workers, especially in the industrial sector, were at the forefront of the political and economic landscape and were supposed to represent a utopian version of the ‘New Man’. Soviet enterprises provided most of the necessary social services to workers, their symbolic status was emphasised, and a whole system of honouring individual workers was created (Ashwin, 1996, 1998). With the transition to a market economy and the contraction of the industrial sector in particular, they lost their importance. Meanwhile, entrepreneurs – the new ‘New Man’ – were now supposed to be the backbone of the new market economy. The transition to capitalism required personal initiative, taking matters into one’s own hands and using ingenuity to achieve success. Nevertheless, the new entrepreneurs were viewed with suspicion by both the public and politicians. Soon after the introduction of capitalism, they came to be seen as a group to be regulated and monitored rather than as a legitimate social group. This can be explained by the fact that, unlike in the Eastern Bloc, entrepreneurship was, for a long time, seen as illegitimate in the Soviet Union, even when liberalising reforms were introduced (Smallbone and Welter, 2009).

Drawing on oral history interviews with entrepreneurs who set up companies and people who stayed in industry in 1990s Lithuania, I show how people justify their positions by invoking different orders of worth. Although similar evaluation repertoires are used in similar situations, which signals the universality of orders of worth, at the same time, certain evaluation repertoires are used more often by some groups than by others. The study also reveals how conflicting orders of worth used during the transformation period resulted in conflicts with societal attitudes and institutional decisions.

I think that similar clashes of evaluation repertoires can be observed not only in the whole post-Communist region but also in a wider context. However, this study reveals how specific evaluation scripts were established at the beginning of the post-communist transformation, which led to the entrenchment of trust/distrust and justice/injustice relations with state actors and other market players. These relationships subsequently lead to a propensity to engage in corrupt practices or, alternatively, to adhere to the rule of law and to build networks of support and legitimate cooperation.

By Ainė Ramonaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

My name is Ainė Ramonaitė. I am a professor of political sociology at the Institute of International Relations and Political Science, Vilnius University, Lithuania. My primary research interests include political attitudes and behavior, with a specific focus on post-Soviet societies.

From April 4 to May 4, 2024, I participated in my first secondment as part of the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project. My secondment was hosted by the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan.

At the OSCE Academy

Kyrgyzstan particularly interests me from a comparative perspective. I was keen to explore the differences and similarities between Lithuania and Kyrgyzstan—both post-Soviet countries that experienced the Soviet regime and a challenging period of transformation. Although Lithuania’s current economic level is several times higher than that of Kyrgyzstan, 20 years ago, the countries were quite similar in terms of their development. Therefore, it was extremely interesting to see how different political trajectories have shaped the social and cultural landscapes of these countries.

In Kyrgyzstan, I observed many social practices that have already disappeared in Lithuania. For example, canteens offering extremely cheap and delicious food, crowded “mikrushkas” virtuously maneuvering through traffic jams, numerous currency exchanges, and various sellers in every underground passage. I also noticed a particularly respectful attitude towards foreigners “from the West” (we are considered “from the West” in their eyes). Additionally, I encountered a lot of recognizable Soviet architecture and artworks (sculptures, mosaics, frescoes, stained glass windows), of which very few have survived in our country. Many Soviet buildings appeared quite abandoned; however, many are currently being repaired, at least in Bishkek, so the picture may change significantly in a few years.

Traders in the underground passage

April proved to be an excellent month for a secondment in Kyrgyzstan. The weather was great—not too hot to work in Bishkek, but already offering a wonderful springtime view of the mountains that cover most of Kyrgyzstan’s territory. May would probably be an even better month, especially for those who enjoy hiking or horseback riding in the mountains, because in April, many higher places are still covered with snow. However, even during this time, there are many opportunities for mountain hiking; we took full advantage of them by joining treks organized by the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan every weekend.

Frozen waterfall in Ala-Archa National Park

The purpose of my research in Kyrgyzstan was to investigate the relationship between the propensity for corruption and belief in conspiracy theories. I am conducting this research with my colleague Julita Slipkauskaitė from Vilnius University. Our goal was to find local collaborators during the secondment and explore the possibilities of conducting a survey experiment. We also hoped to conduct a pilot study with students. However, these tasks turned out to be more complicated than we expected.

Firstly, the OSCE Academy turned out to be a very small academic institution, primarily staffed by visiting professors, with very few local researchers. Moreover, the few people interested in corruption were away on secondments under the MOCCA project. At the Academy, I found only one researcher, Burulcha Sulaimanova, who is also involved in the MOCCA project and works on corruption. She was very helpful, but her research field differed from ours. However, we agreed with the OSCE director to present our research and receive feedback in an online meeting later when the other researchers returned from their secondments.

At the Central Asia Barometer

Secondly, there are very few public opinion polling agencies in Kyrgyzstan, and their surveys are quite expensive. None of them have an online panel, which we need for our experiment both for cost efficiency and for the possibility of randomizing the respondents. Additionally, the Foreign Agents Law, passed just before my secondment, further complicated our investigation. According to local colleagues, this law might treat conducting sociological research and publishing its results as political activity, although it is unclear how strictly it will be applied in practice and what its possible consequences are for researchers like us. Consequently, we have had to postpone our planned survey and explore other options.

Despite these challenges, my visit was truly fruitful. I seized every opportunity to learn about the country and interact with local people, trying to understand prevailing social norms and beliefs. When conducting quantitative research, it is essential to closely understand society to construct a reliable research instrument and adequately interpret the data.

Together with my colleague Julita, we had an informative interview with a lawyer pursuing her PhD on corruption. This interview provided valuable insights into how corruption is perceived in Kyrgyzstan and the measures taken to combat it. We also had a productive visit to the Ala-Too International University in Bishkek, where we presented Lithuania and our university to students and academic staff, and discussed potential cooperation with Vilnius University in studies and research.

I would like to thank the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project and the OSCE Academy in Bishkek for this enriching month in Kyrgyzstan, which provided me with valuable insights and a deeper understanding of the post-Soviet region.