MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia

by Büşra Eylem AKTAŞ, Assistant Professor at Istanbul Medipol University

The time I spent in Prague as part of the MOCCA project was not only an academic opportunity but also allowed for a deeper development of our research. I arrived in Prague on October 4th. Initially, I stayed in a small, warm, and cozy guesthouse near the airport. However, the next day, I moved to the city center to find a more suitable living space. Upon my arrival, I noticed that most people in Prague spoke English quite comfortably, which was a relief. The city quickly captivated me with its excellent food and shopping options.

When I stepped onto the campus of Charles University, I was greeted by a modern building. The library in the campus’s Social Sciences Institute had excellent resources compared to other university libraries. However, the most significant benefit was the academic community I encountered. Conversations with students and faculty contributed greatly to the development of our research. In particular, Anna, an academic researcher involved in the project, was incredibly helpful during my time there. Her friendly and warm approach made me feel confident that she was always ready to assist.

This secondment process in Prague was productive not only in terms of academic growth but also for my professional development. The workshop presentations played a significant role in advancing the project’s ideas. After the presentations, we had the opportunity to exchange ideas with other researchers about different projects. Additionally, the academic connections I made on campus were invaluable in establishing potential collaborations. These connections offer significant opportunities, not only for the current project but also for long-term progress in my research field.

In this project, our main objective is to experimentally test the changes in individuals’ likelihood of engaging in corruption when descriptive norms change. The first study examines the potential differences in individuals’ likelihood of engaging in corruption in different work environments when the leader’s approach to corruption and the descriptive and injunctive norms in the environment are manipulated. The second study tests the question of how changes in descriptive norms (such as more or fewer people engaging in corruption or no one engaging in corruption) will affect an individual’s likelihood of attempting to win in a game by offering a bribe (and making a profit by accepting the bribe). This will allow us to observe the role of norms in normalizing corruption in the eyes of others, as well as to observe how likely individuals are to become prone to corruption in a hypothetical environment.

Following the workshop, Taylan and Burak were assigned the task of gathering pilot data for the Lund University study, and the research process will expand further. My contributions to the MOCCA project and the progress I made seem to be accelerating thanks to the connections I established with people I met during this experience. This has been an important milestone in my academic career, and the relationships I built in Prague will only strengthen it further.

The time spent with Burak and Taylan also allowed me to explore the cultural richness of Prague. We visited historical landmarks like the Charles Bridge, the National Museum,

Astronomical Clock, and the Cathedral. These experiences helped me better understand the city and made my time there more productive. While exploring, we gained new perspectives and developed ideas that would deepen our work on the project.

Another notable observation I had about Prague was how delicious the local cuisine was. This was especially surprising to me!

Vegan food is quite delicious, affordable, and accessible! Prague offered a wonderful experience in this regard. I’m not vegan, but I often choose to consume vegan products.

Also, in my opinion, Prague’s most delicious dessert is vetrnik! Be sure not to leave without trying vetrnik at Cafe Slavia – it’s an experience you shouldn’t miss!

My name is Gurbanmyrat Ovezmyradov, and I am Expert and Scientific Secretary of the of “Tebigy Kuwwat” Public Association Enterprise in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. From June to August in 2024, I spent two months at Medipol University in Istanbul, Türkiye within the MOCCA secondment.

As part of the project, which is aimed at conducting research on the fight against corruption in Central Asia, I thought it would be appropriate to visit this country. For studies in the Asian region, educational and research institutions in Türkiye are among the most suitable places. Not least due to the fact that the country is located on the border of Asia and Europe and has many connections with different parts of the world.

During my secondment at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of Medipol University, I was given substantial attention and great support. This included searching for relevant materials, scientific and other literature. During the secondment, there were working meetings with professors of this faculty, as well as with employees and postgraduate students in related fields from other faculties. There were also conversations with Turkmen students studying at this university. I also had the opportunity to speak with a presentation at an event organized by local colleagues.

At Medipol University, I received great assistance from Dr. Prof. Gökhan Malkoç and Dr. Hatice Deniz Genç. Substantial support was also provided by Dr. Erhan Dogan from Marmara University.

For my research, I chose a topic related to the legislation of Turkmenistan. This topic is about anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan: current status and development prospect. It includes the study of positive experience of countries in combating corruption. During the secondment, there was an exchange of data, scientific views and approaches in this and other related areas of ​​study. It contributed to an understanding of the real problems in Central Asian and neighboring countries, and what is being done in the direction of anti-corruption activities in the Asian countries During the study of problems in the field of corruption at Medipol University, I had the opportunity to use their library. I also found out about a wide range of legislative anti-corruption measures in various forms and cases through online academic databases. The work will contribute to the preparation of recommendations for improving the relevant national legislation. Also, the results of this research help me identify institutional mechanisms that ensure practical measures in the direction of improving transparency. With the help of the obtained materials, I was able to outline the structure of the planned work and carry out other relevant preparations.

The preliminary study relates to the analysis of the anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan. Currently, corruption in the country present risks to national security and the well-being of the population. Therefore, the study of anti-corruption issues is relevant. In this regard, the main objectives of the research are to analyze country’s policy in this area (the institutional and legislative framework) and develop proposals to improve the effectiveness of combating corruption. The relevant studies that have been initiated in the field of combating corruption concern the organization of different measures in various Asian countries.

Along with these studies, I held several meetings and visited various government, cultural, historical, educational and other places in Türkiye as the country is very interesting in this regard, being rich in traditions and resources. At the same time, during my visits to the cities of Ankara and Alanya, I was able to meet with my colleagues from Ankara University and Alaaddin Keykubat University. There was a fruitful exchange of knowledge and opinions. With the help of those accompanying me, I was able to see important government facilities and institutions in Ankara and Alanya, learning a lot about the state structure and the work of various agencies. Ankara is the capital of Türkiye, and Alanya was the residence of the rulers of the Seljuk State (Alanya Fortress). I also had the chance to visit Edirne, which is known for its rich history. It was one of the centers of the Ottoman state, the place of residence of members of the ruling elite. This city located in the European part of Türkiye, right on the border with Greece and Bulgaria, experienced some European influences and has a lot of visitors from other countries.

During visits to museums and historical places, I found interesting information about the public affairs and the structure of administration, including the practices of preventing abuses in the government and law enforcement in the Ottoman Empire. For example, during a visit to the Fatih Sultan Museum, I learned about an interesting practice by the ruler: he regularly held a council, which gathered elders, scholars and religious leaders who had earned respect among the rulers and the people, and allowed them to freely speak out about problematic aspects in the state (including the issues of government bodies and corruption) and ways to solve them.

In conclusion, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the MOCCA team at Lund University and colleagues from universities in Türkiye, who provided great assistance in organizing the secondment and conducting the research.

Меня зовут Гурбанмырат Овезмырадов. Я являюсь Экспертом и Ученым секретарем Предприятия общественного объединения «Тебиги Кувват» в Ашхабаде, Туркменистан, имею степень доктора в технических науках. В июне – августе 2024 года я провел 2 месяца в Университете Медипол в Стамбуле, Турция в рамках стажировки MOCCA.

В рамках проекта MOCCA, который направлен на проведение исследований по борьбе с коррупцией в Центральной Азии и я посчитал, что будет целесообразным посетить эту страну. Для указанных исследований в азиатском регионе учебные и научные учреждения в Турции являются одними из наиболее подходящих мест. В том числе в связи с тем, что эта страна расположена на границе Азии и Европы и её много связывает с Старым светом. В ходе этой стажировки на Faculty of Humanities andSocial sciences of Мedipol University мне было уделено достаточное внимание и оказана большая поддержка. В том числе это касалось поиска соответствующего моей теме материала, научной и другой литературы.  В ходе стажировки состоялись рабочие встречи с преподавателями этого факультета, а также с работниками и аспирантами из смежных специальностей из других факультетов. Также имели место общения с туркменскими студентами, которые учатся в этом университете. Также мне довелось выступить в ходе организованного местными коллегами мероприятия с презентацией. В Медипол Университете мне оказали большую помощь Dr. Prof. Gökhan Malkoç and Dr. Hatice Deniz Genç. Также поддержка была оказана со стороны Dr. Erhan Dogan из Мармара Университета. В процессе стажировки между нами имел место обмен данными, научными взглядами и подходами в этой исследуемой области и в других смежных областях. Это способствовало пониманию реальных проблем в наших и соседних странах и что делается в направлении антикоррупционной деятельности в наших и других азиатских странах.

Для исследований мной была выбрана тема, связанная с законодательством Туркменистана. Эта тема «Антикоррупционное законодательство Туркменистана: современное состояние и перспективы развития» включает изучения положительного опыта стран по борьбе с коррупцией. В ходе исследования проблем в сфере коррупции в Мedipol University у меня была возможность воспользоваться их библиотекой. Мне также представилась возможность через онлайн-базы академических данных ознакомиться с большим спектром законодательных антикоррупционных мер в различных формах и размерах. Проведенные работы будут способствовать подготовке рекомендации по совершенствованию национального законодательства по борьбе с коррупцией. Также результаты этих исследований помогут мне выявить институциональные механизмы, обеспечивающие практические меры в этом направлении. С помощью полученных материалов мне удалось подготовить структуру намечаемой работы и провести другие соответствующие действия. Накопленный материал является основой для моей второй командировки в следующем году.

Проведенные исследования относятся к анализу антикоррупционного законодательства Туркменистана. В настоящее время в стране коррупция представляет угрозу национальной безопасности, благополучия населения. Руководством Туркменистана осуществляются различные меры по противодействию коррупции, однако этого пока недостаточно. Поэтому изучение антикоррупционных вопросов является актуальным. В связи с этим среди основных задач проводимого мной исследования будет являться анализ политики Туркменистана в этом направлении, анализ институциональных и законодательных основ для противодействия коррупции и выработка предложений по повышению эффективности противодействия коррупции. Начатые соответствующие исследования в области борьбы с коррупцией затрагивают организацию этих мер в различных азиатских странах и в нашей стране. В конце исследовательской работы планируется подготовить рекомендации по совершенствованию антикоррупционного законодательства.

Наряду с этими исследованиями мной проводились встречи, посещения различных властных, культурных, исторических, образовательных и других разных мест Турции. Так как эта страна очень интересна в этом отношении, богата традициями, объектами и ресурсами. При этом в ходе посещения городов Анкара и Аланья мне удалось встретиться с моими коллегами из Анкара Университета и Университета имени Аллаэтдина Кейкубат. Там состоялись плодотворный обмен знаниями и мнениями. С помощью сопровождавших меня лиц удалось увидеть важные государственные объекты и институты в Анкаре и Аланья, узнать много о государственном устройстве и работе правоохранительных органов. Анкара является столицей Турции, а в Аланья располагалась резиденция правителей Сельджукского государства (Крепость «Аланья»).   Также мне довелось побывать в Эдирне, которая известна своей богатой историей, являлась одним из центров Османского государства, местом правления и обитания членов турецкой правящей верхушки. Этот город располагается в Европейской части Турции, уже на самой границе с Грецией и Болгарией. Поэтому здесь много перенятого от европейского и очень много приезжих из этих и других стран Европы. В ходе посещений там музеев и исторических мест удалось получить интересную информацию о ведении государственных дел, структуре государственного управления, в том числе в сфере борьбы с злобоупотреблениями в властных и правоохранительных органах Османской империи. Для примера, в ходе посещения музея Фатих Султан Мухаммеда Второго узнал про интересную практику, которую использовал этот Правитель. Он регулярно устраивал Совет, на который собирал заслуживших уважение среди правителей и народа старейшин, мудрецов и религиозных лидеров и позволял им свободно высказывать о проблемных сторонах в Государстве и путях решения (в том числе о работе органов власти и коррупционных явлениях).

В заключении выражаю большую благодарность команде MOCCA в Лундском Университете и коллегам из турецких университетов, которые оказала значительную содействие в организации и реализации командировки, в проведении моих исследований (к Отчету прилагаются некоторые иллюстрационные материалы).

My name is Zarina Kadyrova, and I represent the Tajik State University of Commerce in MOCCA project. I would like to share my experience from my secondment, which took place from August 19 to October 17 at Lund University in Sweden and Charles University in Prague, alongside my colleague, Dr. Ismattulo Ismatulloev.

First and foremost, I want to emphasize the significant importance of obtaining a visa, purchasing plane tickets, and securing accommodation in a timely manner while preparing for the secondment. Although my colleague and I successfully obtained our visas and bought our plane tickets, we only began searching for accommodation in Lund and Prague a month prior to our departure. This approach proved to be less than ideal, as finding suitable accommodation that fit our budget for a short duration (one month) turned out to be quite challenging. Therefore, I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to Elmurod Sobirov, Tolibjon Mustafoev (Lund University), and Anna Jordanova (Charles University) for their invaluable assistance in helping us find accommodation during our short secondment in Sweden (Malmo, Lund) and the Czech Republic (Prague).

Many researchers are drawn to the opportunity to conduct research abroad to expand their knowledge, gain new insights, test scientific hypotheses, establish patterns, and make scientific generalizations. This experience offers not only the chance to conduct research in an international setting but also serves as a valuable means of professional development. It enables researchers to explore new methodologies, engage with the scientific literature of foreign scholars, enhance language skills, and immerse themselves in the history and culture of the host country. Thanks to the MOCCA project, we, the faculty members of TSUC, were afforded this unique opportunity, which was primarily aimed at our personal development and the advancement of research into international practices for developing effective anti-corruption strategies.

In secondment period, I engaged in discussions on the preliminary results of research examining the conditions for the emergence and development of corruption across various sectors of society. We explored the significance of an effective national anti-corruption strategy and the Asian model, characterized by a tolerant attitude towards corruption, often perceived as a relatively normal phenomenon due to cultural traditions and economic necessity. This exchange of ideas significantly advanced my research activities within the MOCCA project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to Chekroz Kilichova (Lund University) and Anna Jordanova for their swift resolution of organizational matters related to our stay at Lund University and Charles University. Thanks to them, I quickly received university pass, gained access to the libraries and electronic resources of both universities, and provided with essential information for navigating the campuses and the cities of Malmo, Lund, and Prague. I appreciated the conditions provided in the research offices at both universities. Additionally, I had the opportunity to work on my research in the university library. In Malmo, it was possible to use the city library.

Moreover, my colleague and I were fortunate to attend the dissertation defense of a PhD student supervised by Rustamjon Urinboyev. The organizational process and the defense itself were fundamentally different from the process at the TSUC dissertation council. It was fascinating to observe the PhD student confidently and decisively defend their research findings while engaging with the opponent and addressing their questions.

During our secondment at Charles University, my colleague and I had the opportunity to present to students in Anna Chordanova’s class on topics related to economics and entrepreneurship, while also introducing them to Tajikistan’s history and economy during the Soviet era, as well as its current context.

I would also like to share my impressions of the cities of Lund and Prague. Lund is home to the most significant southern Swedish cathedral and university. I resided in Malmo, which is only a 10-15 minute train ride from Lund. Almost all trains, regardless of their destination, stop in Lund. Lund is a vibrant student city and an educational and scientific hub in the province of Skane. It is also recognized as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in Europe, featuring dedicated lanes for cyclists. However, one must be cautious not to inadvertently venture onto the bike paths, as cyclists travel at high speeds, and inattentiveness can lead to accidents. Remarkably, half of the city’s residents commute by bicycle, while the number of cars has remained constant for the past decade—an admirable cycling culture indeed.

Describing Prague in just a few words is nearly impossible; it feels like stepping into a fairy tale. I lived in Malovanka (Prague 6), and it took only 15-20 minutes to walk to Charles Bridge and other attractions through charming, narrow streets lined with beautiful buildings. From the viewpoint, Prague appears as a fairy tale town laid out in the palm of your hand. Finding this viewpoint is straightforward—just follow the crowd of tourists. From there, you can admire the Old and New Town, St. Nicholas Church, the towers of the Church of Our Lady before Tyn, and the colorful rooftops of Prague. The viewpoint is situated on the walls of Prague Castle.

The Faculty of Social Sciences is situated on Jinonice, and I traveled there from Malovanka by bus, although had the option to take the metro. The transit pass I purchased for public transportation could be used on buses, the metro, and trams. Due to the faculty’s location on a small hill, the faculty library, with its bright and innovative design, is visible from a distance, making it impossible to miss the stop.

My secondment at Lund University and Charles University was an invaluable experience that significantly enriched my academic and professional journey. The opportunity to engage in meaningful research discussions, explore new methodologies, scientific literature and immerse myself in the vibrant cultures of Sweden (Malmo; Lund) and the Czech Republic (Prague) has greatly enhanced my understanding of international practices in developing effective anti-corruption strategies. I am particularly grateful for the support and assistance from my colleagues and the staff at both universities, which facilitated a smooth and productive stay in Europe.

My name is Yolbars Kepbanov. I am a representative of the Tebigi Kuwwat Public Association and I have a Doctorate in Law in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. From April to May 2024, I spent one month at Marmara University in Istanbul, Turkey, and from May to August 2024, three months at Charles University Prague, Czech Republic as part of the MOCCA project.

As part of the MOCCA project, which aims to conduct research on anti-corruption legislation in Central Asia, it seemed to me that it would be worthwhile to visit these two countries with different mentality. In my opinion, there could hardly be a better place for this purpose than these educational and research institutions. It is not the first time that I had a secondment at Marmara University and Charles University, where I have received great support and attention. First of all, this comprehensive assistance was in finding the necessary material, literature and meeting with relevant specialists.

I have chosen a scientific topic related to the anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan considering the best practices of the EU, which involves, among other things, studying the positive experience of the countries in the fight against corruption. This can help me to develop specific recommendations for improving our national anti-corruption legislation, to identify institutional mechanisms that provide specific measures in this direction. I was supported and assisted in every possible way by professors, students, staff at the Faculty of Social Sciences in Charles University and at the Political Science and International Relations Department in Marmara University. Together with local scholars, we actively exchanged academic opinions, data and definitions in order to understand what the problems in the fight against corruption really are.

I had a great opportunity to use libraries in Istanbul and Prague and online academic databases to research corruption issues. I learned a wide range of legal measures to fight corruption, with different types of corruption in all scales and forms, as well as different types of anti-corruption campaigns. This theoretical material helped me to develop the structure of my future work, to organize the collected material into relevant sections, which will the basis for my research and secondment in 2025.

My research concerns the analysis of anti-corruption legislation of Turkmenistan, because corruption currently remains one of the main challenges to development of the country. It can undermine the security and significantly limit the freedoms of citizens. Despite the adoption of preventive measures by the government, corruption still has a negative impact. In this regard, the study of the problems of combating corruption, primarily by means of legal instruments, is currently of utmost importance. The main objective of my research thus will be to analyze the relevant legislation.

Of course, in addition to research work, I also found time for a cultural program. Istanbul is the largest city of Turkey, the economic, historical and cultural center of the country. I was impressed by such historical and cultural monuments as Topkapi Palace, Aya Sofia and others. During my stay in Istanbul I managed to visit the resort city of Alanya, where I spent a wonderful time among palm trees and beaches.

The capital of the Czech Republic, Prague, where I spent most of my secondment, is a completely different environment. Prague is an old romantic city where one won’t get bored. It is a paradise for those who love culture, history and shopping. It provides all kinds of goods produced in different parts of the Czech Republic. Walking around the central part of the city, one can simultaneously enjoy the beauty of ancient buildings and buy unique souvenirs. In addition to Prague, I managed to visit Karlovy Vary, where there are many historical monuments, unusual buildings and most importantly a large number of mineral springs. All this impressed me very much.

Finally, I would like to express my great gratitude to the MOCCA team in Lund, who provided me with great support and assistance in my research and in the organization of the trip.

by Dr. Jogilė Ulinskaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

The secondment to Lund University was a great opportunity to develop and present my research ideas. I particularly appreciated the opportunity to meet interesting colleagues involved in the MOCCA project, researching very important and complex issues. I also had the opportunity to network with the Department of Sociology of Law, the department in which the MOCCA project is based. The friendly and welcoming environment and the spontaneous academic discussions made my stay in Lund very enjoyable.

Most importantly, it was an opportunity to present my research and reflect on its relevance for the post-socialist region as a whole. The post-communist transformation that took place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union was a complex process involving all spheres of society – political, economic, social and cultural. The economic downturn meant that many people had to think about how to make ends meet. Yet, at the same time, in a period of radical change, some of the most important questions that people had to deal with were what is valuable, what is success and how to achieve it. I argue that as people contemplated future prospects and assumed new roles in a context of uncertainty, they evaluated and justified their choices by drawing on different grammars of worth (Boltanski and Thévenot, 1999). In my work, I draw on Boltanski and Thévenot’s theory of justification to explain how people actively engage in social discourses to determine the legitimacy and value of their actions and choices in their professional lives.

In my research, I also ask whether different groups use different evaluation repertoires differently. In particular, I look at two different groups that have experienced the transformation from different starting points: small entrepreneurs and former industrial workers. During the Soviet period, workers, especially in the industrial sector, were at the forefront of the political and economic landscape and were supposed to represent a utopian version of the ‘New Man’. Soviet enterprises provided most of the necessary social services to workers, their symbolic status was emphasised, and a whole system of honouring individual workers was created (Ashwin, 1996, 1998). With the transition to a market economy and the contraction of the industrial sector in particular, they lost their importance. Meanwhile, entrepreneurs – the new ‘New Man’ – were now supposed to be the backbone of the new market economy. The transition to capitalism required personal initiative, taking matters into one’s own hands and using ingenuity to achieve success. Nevertheless, the new entrepreneurs were viewed with suspicion by both the public and politicians. Soon after the introduction of capitalism, they came to be seen as a group to be regulated and monitored rather than as a legitimate social group. This can be explained by the fact that, unlike in the Eastern Bloc, entrepreneurship was, for a long time, seen as illegitimate in the Soviet Union, even when liberalising reforms were introduced (Smallbone and Welter, 2009).

Drawing on oral history interviews with entrepreneurs who set up companies and people who stayed in industry in 1990s Lithuania, I show how people justify their positions by invoking different orders of worth. Although similar evaluation repertoires are used in similar situations, which signals the universality of orders of worth, at the same time, certain evaluation repertoires are used more often by some groups than by others. The study also reveals how conflicting orders of worth used during the transformation period resulted in conflicts with societal attitudes and institutional decisions.

I think that similar clashes of evaluation repertoires can be observed not only in the whole post-Communist region but also in a wider context. However, this study reveals how specific evaluation scripts were established at the beginning of the post-communist transformation, which led to the entrenchment of trust/distrust and justice/injustice relations with state actors and other market players. These relationships subsequently lead to a propensity to engage in corrupt practices or, alternatively, to adhere to the rule of law and to build networks of support and legitimate cooperation.

By Ainė Ramonaitė, researcher from Vilnius University

My name is Ainė Ramonaitė. I am a professor of political sociology at the Institute of International Relations and Political Science, Vilnius University, Lithuania. My primary research interests include political attitudes and behavior, with a specific focus on post-Soviet societies.

From April 4 to May 4, 2024, I participated in my first secondment as part of the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project. My secondment was hosted by the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan.

At the OSCE Academy

Kyrgyzstan particularly interests me from a comparative perspective. I was keen to explore the differences and similarities between Lithuania and Kyrgyzstan—both post-Soviet countries that experienced the Soviet regime and a challenging period of transformation. Although Lithuania’s current economic level is several times higher than that of Kyrgyzstan, 20 years ago, the countries were quite similar in terms of their development. Therefore, it was extremely interesting to see how different political trajectories have shaped the social and cultural landscapes of these countries.

In Kyrgyzstan, I observed many social practices that have already disappeared in Lithuania. For example, canteens offering extremely cheap and delicious food, crowded “mikrushkas” virtuously maneuvering through traffic jams, numerous currency exchanges, and various sellers in every underground passage. I also noticed a particularly respectful attitude towards foreigners “from the West” (we are considered “from the West” in their eyes). Additionally, I encountered a lot of recognizable Soviet architecture and artworks (sculptures, mosaics, frescoes, stained glass windows), of which very few have survived in our country. Many Soviet buildings appeared quite abandoned; however, many are currently being repaired, at least in Bishkek, so the picture may change significantly in a few years.

Traders in the underground passage

April proved to be an excellent month for a secondment in Kyrgyzstan. The weather was great—not too hot to work in Bishkek, but already offering a wonderful springtime view of the mountains that cover most of Kyrgyzstan’s territory. May would probably be an even better month, especially for those who enjoy hiking or horseback riding in the mountains, because in April, many higher places are still covered with snow. However, even during this time, there are many opportunities for mountain hiking; we took full advantage of them by joining treks organized by the Trekking Union of Kyrgyzstan every weekend.

Frozen waterfall in Ala-Archa National Park

The purpose of my research in Kyrgyzstan was to investigate the relationship between the propensity for corruption and belief in conspiracy theories. I am conducting this research with my colleague Julita Slipkauskaitė from Vilnius University. Our goal was to find local collaborators during the secondment and explore the possibilities of conducting a survey experiment. We also hoped to conduct a pilot study with students. However, these tasks turned out to be more complicated than we expected.

Firstly, the OSCE Academy turned out to be a very small academic institution, primarily staffed by visiting professors, with very few local researchers. Moreover, the few people interested in corruption were away on secondments under the MOCCA project. At the Academy, I found only one researcher, Burulcha Sulaimanova, who is also involved in the MOCCA project and works on corruption. She was very helpful, but her research field differed from ours. However, we agreed with the OSCE director to present our research and receive feedback in an online meeting later when the other researchers returned from their secondments.

At the Central Asia Barometer

Secondly, there are very few public opinion polling agencies in Kyrgyzstan, and their surveys are quite expensive. None of them have an online panel, which we need for our experiment both for cost efficiency and for the possibility of randomizing the respondents. Additionally, the Foreign Agents Law, passed just before my secondment, further complicated our investigation. According to local colleagues, this law might treat conducting sociological research and publishing its results as political activity, although it is unclear how strictly it will be applied in practice and what its possible consequences are for researchers like us. Consequently, we have had to postpone our planned survey and explore other options.

Despite these challenges, my visit was truly fruitful. I seized every opportunity to learn about the country and interact with local people, trying to understand prevailing social norms and beliefs. When conducting quantitative research, it is essential to closely understand society to construct a reliable research instrument and adequately interpret the data.

Together with my colleague Julita, we had an informative interview with a lawyer pursuing her PhD on corruption. This interview provided valuable insights into how corruption is perceived in Kyrgyzstan and the measures taken to combat it. We also had a productive visit to the Ala-Too International University in Bishkek, where we presented Lithuania and our university to students and academic staff, and discussed potential cooperation with Vilnius University in studies and research.

I would like to thank the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia” project and the OSCE Academy in Bishkek for this enriching month in Kyrgyzstan, which provided me with valuable insights and a deeper understanding of the post-Soviet region.

By Dr Indira Satarkulova, researcher, Deputy Director of the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Marmara University entrance image, digital photograph, accessed on 04 May 2024, <https://www.marmara.edu.tr/universite/yerleskeler> 

Dear readers, from the beginning of 2023 the OSCE Academy in Bishkek is proud to be a Central Asian project partner of the “MOCCA: Multilevel Orders of Corruption in Central Asia,” a Horizon 2021 project led by the University of Lund, Sweden. Today I am excited to share my 1-month research experience at Marmara University, one of the oldest and reputable educational institutions in Türkiye established on 16 January 1883 under the name Hamidiye Ticaret Mekteb-i Âlisi, and affiliated with the Commercial, Agriculture, Forestry and Mining industry. The first 13 graduates matriculated in 1887 but today it provides educational services to approximately 75,000 students, of whom about 2,000 are foreign students.

This was my first secondment and the very start of the research work. Upon my arrival, the Marmara University and staff from the Faculty of Political Sciences welcomed me warmly in one of its largest campuses located in Göztepe. During the first days of the field work, I had the opportunity to familiarize myself with the hosting university and the resources it had to offer. I was amazed with the scale of educational approach and care at the university: spacious classrooms and conference rooms, installed technical equipment sustaining high quality of education, careful attention paid to the security level at the university, coffee shops, green zones and beautiful library, established in 1997.

Marmara University Library image, digital photograph, accessed on 17 April 2024, < https://kutuphane.marmara.edu.tr/en/presidential/gallery>

Its building was constructed utilizing advanced technological facilities: large and bright reading rooms to provide readers with comfort while carrying out their activities. Only Book Chapter containing general collections serves an area of over 1000 m² and offers books in 68 languages. It also contains a rare books library collection which is open to all researchers and students willing to work with 1964 Manuscripts, 6781 Printed Books with Old Letters, 581 Rare Books with Latin Letters, 715 Volumes of Periodicals, a total of 1,721,000 pages of the Digital Collection.

On 25 April 2024, I was delighted to receive an invitation to meet with the students and faculty of the Marmara University and deliver a presentation about the OSCE Academy, its programmatic and research activities as well as about the education system in Kyrgyzstan in general. I was very pleased to learn how students of Marmara University are interested in education and eager to use opportunities to explore foreign countries and study abroad.

On 26 April 2024, a research seminar on “Issues in Formality, Informality and Corruption: Findings of the Three EU Maria Skłodowska-Curie Actions Projects”, was organized by Dr Ibrahim Mazlum and his team. The presentations were divided into 2 panels allowing 6 researchers to introduce themselves, their project works and engage into discussions and interactive sessions with the students and faculty. During the seminar I presented the MOCCA project and the selected research topic “Harnessing AI in the Fight Against Corruption: A Comprehensive Analysis for Central Asian OSCE pS.”

To gain invaluable insights into the research’s vision and its potential impact on the field of economics and corruption through international perspective, I was happy to meet online with Ms Salomé Flores Sierra Franzoni, Head of the UNODC Information Centre for researching and analyzing transnational threats related to drugs and crime in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. We shared our experiences, asked and answered questions and learned valuable information about the GRACE Initiative, which offers resources to educate on corruption related matters, the UNODC publication on gender and corruption which is called “The Time is now”. Salome kindly shared the resolution of the Conference of State Parties on the measurement of corruption and the statistical framework to measure corruption and introduced me to the UNODC work on the private sector and the prevention of corruption.

An online meeting with the representatives of the Transparency International is anticipated.

On 07 May Dr Ibrahim Mazlum has invited for a meeting with Prof Nuri Tınaz, Director General, Office for International Relations and Academic Cooperation. We discussed our field work via MOCCA project and potential future cooperation between Marmara University and the OSCE Academy in Bishkek.

On 09 May I was honored to be invited as a guest lecture and deliver a lecture to the students of Marmara University (IR faculty) on “Introduction to International Arbitration”. My lecture was conjoined with the course taught by Prof. Necdet Umur Orcan on International Law.

During my field work I had a great opportunity to think on a trigger or catalyst of my article, structure it, plan its objectives and methodology and start collecting available information and data. The use of Artificial Intelligence is a very hot research topic in the country today. In Türkiye in accordance with the Presidential Circular No. 2021/18 the “National Artificial Intelligence Strategy 2021-2025” (NAIS), prepared in cooperation with the Digital Transformation Office of the Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye and the Ministry of Industry and Technology, was entered into force. NAIS was prepared as per the Eleventh Development Plan and Presidential Annual Programs, in line with the “Digital Türkiye “Vision and the “National Technology Initiative”. Country is moving forward in accordance with the 6 strategic priorities:

1. Training AI experts and increasing employment in the domain;
2. Supporting research, entrepreneurship and innovation;
3. Facilitating access to quality data and technical infrastructure;
4. Regulating to accelerate socioeconomic adaptation;
5. Strengthening international cooperation;
6. Accelerating structural and labor transformation.

The Digital Transformation Office, established under the Digital State Strategy, manages Türkiye’s digitalization journey, including in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Many investments are made in AI in Türkiye. Many universities offer AI learning departments (among them are: Istanbul Technical University, Bogazici University, Sabancı University, Bilkent University, Koç University, METU, Izmir Institute of Technology. From my understanding, there are many sectors, where in Türkiye AI is widely used: health care and health tourism, finance, retail, energy, logistics, and industry, whereas is Central Asian region the use of AI is on its start point and mostly used in finance sector to detect fraud, money laundering and etc. For comparative purposes it was interesting to explore the Türkiye’s overall legal commitments in the field of our project research topics. In is undisputable that the UN Convention against Corruption is considered as a landmark in the fight against corruption. Türkiye took part in the preparation works of the Ad Hoc Committee in Vienna and is among the first countries signed the Convention on 10 December 2003 and became party to the Convention on 9 December 2006. I learned that Türkiye also ratified the Council of Europe Civil and Criminal Law Conventions on Corruption and became a member of the Group of States against Corruption in 2004. Türkiye also ratified the Council of Europe’s Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime (1990) on 30 July 2004. As of today, Türkiye is a member of the Financial Action Task Force and a party to the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions and of the OECD Working Group on Bribery. There is no general anti-corruption or bribery law in Türkiye. However, Turkish legislation does contain provisions on anti-corruption: the Turkish Criminal Code (for example, article 252. Bribery of public officials), the Law on Declaration of Property and Combating Bribery and Corruption, the Law on the Ethics Board for Public Officials, and the Civil Servants Ethical Principles and Application Procedures and Principles. However, while working on my topic, it became obvious to me that corruption related matters are not easily discussed openly here and most materials must be searched and collected by the researchers in printed materials, international statistical reports, books, magazines and other publications. Among them was the Istanbul Anti-corruption Action Plan – a sub-regional peer review programme launched in 2003 in the framework of the CAN which supports anti-corruption reforms through country reviews and continuous monitoring of implementation of recommendations. For practical experience I hoped to meet with the related state officials in Türkiye. However, the initially planned meetings with the representatives of the General Prosecution Office, Ministry of National Defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Interior of Türkiye were not conducted due to two main reasons: 1) time limits (1 month of my stay was not enough to have them organized on a highly formal level), the venue of all mentioned state authorities is Ankara while I was stationed in Istanbul. This brought me to an idea that it would be highly quality and financially efficient for the Lund University project team to consider possibility of expansion of the MOCCA partnership network and invite other Turkish universities located in Ankara to join the project, which could widen secondment locations for the researchers and support their field works even more.

I would like to warmly thank the Marmara University staff, Dr Ibrahim Mazlum, Mr Melih Kölük, Research Assistant, Faculty of Political Sciences, for the provided support during my field work and cordially invite them to visit beautiful Kyrgyzstan and the OSCE Academy in the future.

My special words of gratitude go to the Department of Sociology of Law at Lund University and the project team whose joint professional investments made this secondment fast and professionally organized. I am looking forward to continue my research work further.

By Azamat Satarov, researcher, research-expert of Anticorruption Business Council under the President of The Kyrgyz Republic

<https://world-study.ua/education/turkey/universities/universitet-marmara/>

Greetings, today I would like to share my research experience within the walls of Marmara University—one of the oldest and largest universities in Turkey, where approximately 2800-faculty members work and about 80,000 students study, located in the city of Istanbul. Marmara University is the multilingual university in Turkey, with teaching conducted in four languages: Turkish, English, German, and French.

My secondment began on March 1 2024, and by March 4, I had the opportunity to visit the vast and very beautiful Göztepe Campus and meet the staff of the Department of Political Science and International Relations. I was kindly shown around the Göztepe Campus, which includes a large number of buildings designed to provide quality education at the highest level with all amenities such as libraries, conference halls, classrooms, and cafes. It is also worth noting that a large part of the campus area is made up of green spaces.

On April 26, 2024, I participated in the seminar “Issues in Formality, Informality, and Corruption: Findings of the Three EU Maria Skłodowska-Curie Actions Projects,” organized by Dr. Ibrahim Mazlum and his colleagues. At the seminar, I presented my research topic “The Role of Female Leaders in Combating Corruption.” This seminar was divided into 2 sessions, with 6 speakers participating, each presenting their own research.

I am planning to write my article based on responses I will gather through interviews and an online survey, which I aim to conduct with around 100 people. The questionnaire consists of two parts: one for offline interviews and the other for online interviews. Each type of survey contains 10 questions. For offline interviews, the questions are open-ended, while for online interviews, respondents are offered a choice of four provided answer options.

(https://prezi.com/view/MdiDf49Njnnq4vZpxaVO/)

In addition, on this day, I had the opportunity to have an online meeting with Ms Salomé Flores Sierra Franzoni,  Head of the UNODC Information Centre for researching and analyzing transnational threats related to drugs and crime in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. We exchanged our experiences, posed and addressed inquiries, and gained valuable insights into the GRACE Initiative, which provides resources for educating on matters related to corruption, the UNODC publication on gender and corruption titled “The Time is now.” Ms Salome Flores Sierra Franzoni generously shared the resolution of the Conference of State Parties on corruption measurement and the statistical framework for measuring corruption, and acquainted me with UNODC’s efforts in the private sector and corruption prevention.

On May 9, I attended a guest lecture on “Introduction to International Arbitration” with students from the IR Faculty of Marmara University, conducted by Dr. Indira Satarkulova and Professor Necdet Umur Orcan on International Law.

I would like to express my immense gratitude to the staff of Marmara University, particularly to Dr. Ibrahim Mazlum and Research Assistant Mr. Melih Kölük, for their support during my secondment.

I would also like to extend special thanks to the Department of Sociology of Law at Lund University and the project team for their professional approach to organizing the secondment within the framework of the MOCCA project.